1. Human Growth and Development
Chapter Two
Theories of Development
PowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson, Grossmont College
Revised by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College

2. Five Questions Central to Theories
Do early experiences of breast-feeding or bonding or abuse linger into adulthood, even if they seem to be forgotten?
How important are specific school experiences in human intelligence?
Can a person develop moral values without being taught them?

3. Five Questions Central to Theories, cont.
Does culture elicit behavior, e.g., is violent crime more common in one place than another; for example, in China or Canada?
If your parents or grandparents schizophrenia, or alcoholism, will you develop them suffer from depression,?
Of all questions—Why or Why not? When and How?, So What?

4. What Theories Do
Developmental theory—systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for studying development

5. What Theories Do, cont.
Theories
form basis for hypotheses that can be tested by research studies
formulating right question is more difficult that finding right answers
generate discoveries
offer insight and guidance by providing coherent view

6. What Theories Do, cont. Different Types
grand theories—comprehensive, traditional theories
originated in psychology
minitheories—theories that focus on specific area of development
originated more in sociology through study of social groups and family structures
emergent theories—new, comprehensive groupings of minitheories
multidisciplinary approach includes historic events and genetic discoveries

7. Grand Theories
Grand Theories—powerful framework for interpreting and understanding change and development that applies to all individuals in all contexts, across all contents

9. Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory interprets human development in terms of motives and drives

10. Freud’s Ideas Sigmund Freud
Three stages of development in first six years
oral, anal, phallic in early childhood, latency and then adolescence, genital
each stage includes potential conflicts
how a person experiences and resolves conflicts determines personality and patterns of behavior

11. Erikson’s Ideas
Erik Erikson, a follower of Freud, proposed 8 developmental stages, each characterized by a developmental crisis
trust vs. mistrust
autonomy vs. shame
initiative vs. guilt
industry vs. inferiority
identity vs. role diffusion
intimacy vs. isolation
generativity vs. stagnation
integrity vs. despair

13. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is built on laws of behavior and processes by which behavior is learned
focus: ways we learn specific behaviors that can be described, analyzed, and predicted with scientific accuracy

14. Laws of Behavior Conditioning—any process in which behavior is learned
Classical conditioning—Ivan Pavlov
process by which a neutral stimulus become associated with a meaningful stimulus
stimulus and response (respondent conditioning)
Learning by association

15. Operant conditioning—B. F. Skinner
process by which a response is gradually learned via reinforcement or punishment
also called instrumental conditioning
Learning by consequence

17. Social Learning
Extension of learning theory that includes modeling which involves people observing behavior and patterning their own after it
Modeling
process in which people observe, then copy behavior
Alfred Bandura—most likely to occur if model is admired or observer is inexperienced
self-efficacy motivates people to change themselves and their contexts

18. Cognitive Theory
Focuses on the structure and development of thought processes, which shape perceptions, attitudes, and actions.
Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages
sensorimotor
pre-operational
concrete operational
formal operational

19. Cognitive Theory, cont.
Cognitive equilibrium—state of mental balance
Cognitive adaptation—assimilation, accommodation of ideas

22. Emergent Theories
Emergent theories arise from several accumulated minitheories and may be the new systematic and comprehensive theories of the future

23. Sociocultural Theory
Seeks to explain growth of individual knowledge, development, and competencies in terms of guidance, support, and structure supplied by the society
human development is the result of dynamic interaction of the developing persons and their surrounding culture

24. Guided Participation
Guided participation—tutor engages learner in joint activities, providing instruction and direct involvement in learning
Apprenticeship in thinking—mentor provides instruction and support needed by novice

25. The Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of proximal development—range of skills learner can perform with assistance but not independently
learner is drawn into learning by teacher
Cultural variations: Basic principles are universal, but skills, challenges, and opportunities vary from culture to culture, depending on the values and structures of the culture’s society

27. Epigenetic Theory
Emphasizes the interaction between genes and the environment—the newest developmental theory
stresses that we have powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage. Timing and pace of certain developmental changes are genetically guided
performism—everything is set in advance by genes and then is gradually manifested in the course of maturation

28. With, On, and Around the Genes
Genetic refers to the entire genome that makes up the particular genes that cause each person to be unique
each human has a genetic foundation that is unique
epigenetic theory acknowledges the powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage

29. With, On, and Around the Genes, cont.
Epi = with, around, before, after, on, or near = surrounding factors
epigenetic—surrounding factors that affect expression of genetic instructions
some surrounding factors may be stress factors; others may be facilitating factors
Genetic-environmental Interactions
genes never function alone

30. Genetic Adaptation Adaptation of the Genes
selective adaptation means that genes for the traits that are most useful will become more frequent, thus making survival of species more likely

31. What Theories Can Contribute
Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of importance of early childhood experiences
Behaviorism has shown effect of immediate environment on learning
Cognitive theory helps us understand how intellectual process and thinking affect actions

32. What Theories Can Contribute, cont.
Sociocultural theory has reminded us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted context
Epigenetic theory emphasizes interactions between inherited forces and immediate contexts

34. What Theories Can Contribute, cont.
Eclectic perspective
approach taken by most developmentalists in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories rather than staying with just one

35. The Nature-Nurture Controversy
Is it heredity or environment that shapes us?
How much is a result of any given characteristics, behavior or pattern of development is a result of genes and how much is a result of experiences
Policy and practice: nature/nurture theories are implicit in many public policies