1. Comparison and Contrast

2. Contents: Structures of comparison Structures of contrast Cause-effect development

3. Structures of comparison

4. Structure 1 - adj. / prep. (1) same…as (2) similar to… (3) like… Kennedy was killed on the same day of the week as Lincoln. (adj) (prep) Kennedy’s death was similar to Lincoln’s in that they both died in office. (adj) (prep) Kennedy’s death was like Lincoln’s. (prep) Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to heed his secretary’s warming. (basis of comparison)

5. Structure 2 – attached statements (1) …too (2) …either Kennedy was succeeded by a Southern Democrat, and Lincoln was too. and so was Lincoln. Kennedy could arouse the sympathy of the public, and Lincoln could too. and so could Lincoln. Kennedy’s secretary couldn’t prevent the president’s assassination, and Lincoln’s couldn’t either and neither could Lincoln’s.

6. Structure 3 – correlative conjunction (1) both…and (2) Neither...nor Both Kennedy and Lincoln Kennedy and Lincoln both had their elections legally challenged. Neither Kennedy’s wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to happen that day. Neither Kennedy’s children nor his wife was expecting anything unusual to happen that day.

7. Structure 4 – predicate structures (1) to resemble (2) have…in common (3) There are similarities Kennedy’s popularity resembled Lincoln’s. Kennedy and Lincoln have features in common. There are similarities between Kennedy and Lincoln.

8. Structure 5 – sentence connectors Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson ; similarly, correspondingly, likewise, in the same way, Lyndon Johnson, a Democrat from the South, succeeded Kennedy.

9. Structure 6 – punctuation only Andrew Johnson was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908. Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy ; likewise, Kennedy’s was Mrs. Lincoln. semicolon (;)

10. Structures of contrast

11. Structure 1 - …than (1) is…than (2) as…as The introvert than the extrovert is quieter is more reliable is less optimistic learns more slowly The extrovert the introvert. is not as quieter as is not as reliable as does not learns as slowly as

12. Structure 2 – prepositions Unlike Contrary to As opposed to the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life. The extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life in the opposite way.

13. Structure 3 – adverbial structures Whereas While the extrovert loses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom does.

14. Structure 4 – adjective There are two models in this case. They are completely opposite. They have opposite views on the question.

15. Structure 5 – Verbal clauses The introvert contrasts with differs from is different from in regard to in respect of with respect to the extrovert his or her temper.

16. Structure 6 – sentence connectors however, on the other hand, in contrast, The extrovert loves crowds ; the introvert is fond of solitude The extrovert loves crowds; the introvert, is fond of solitude. however, on the other hand, in contrast,

17. Structure 7 – conjunctions The extrovert loves crowds, but the introvert is fond of solitude.

18. Structure 8 – punctuation only The introvert likes books ; the extrovert is fond of people.

19. The extrovert loves crowds. The introvert is fond of solitude. Practice:

20. Cause and Effect development structural signals When you use a cause-effect method of development, this will often mean that your are supporting the topic sentence by listing or enumerating.

21. Effect – what a certain situation has led to or has resulted in. Cause – reasons or explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did. cause # 1 cause # 2 Situation cause # 3 effect # 1 Situation effect # 2 effect # 3 Focus on cause Focus on effect

22. Structure 1 – sentence connectors as a result, consequently, therefore, because of this, hence, In some areas, water levels will fall ; these areas will no longer be able to support industry.

23. Structure 2 – Conjunctions (1) so (2) for (because) Some areas will no longer be able to support industry, for water levels will have fallen in these areas. (effect) (cause) In some areas, water levels will fall, so these areas will no longer be able to support industry. (cause) (effect)

24. Structure 3 – clause structures be so great that happen so fast that dry out so much land that cause such terrible damage that cause such a severe heat wave that The rise in temperature will agricultural patterns will change (1) so…that such…that such a…that

25. Since Because Because of the fact that Due to the fact that rainfall patterns will change, water supplies will diminish. (2) Since because

26. Structure 4 – phrase structures Because of Due to As a result of In view of the increased heat, agricultural patterns will change.

27. Structure 5 – predicate structures The predicate of a sentence includes everything from the verb to the end. In this group of structures, the cause-effect relationship is indicated either by the verb or the words following it. cause result in be the reason for be responsible for contribute to lead to Changes in water levels will changes in living patterns. (1)

28. result from be a result of be a consequence of be due to follow from Drastic changes in living patterns will changes in water levels. (2)

29. Structure 6 – participial phrases Participial phrases have no subjects, and contain verbs which are in the –ing form. causing leading to contributing to resulting in Water levels will change, changes in living patterns. (1)

30. resulting from following from Living patterns will change, changes in water levels. (2)

31. More examples Massive shifts in population will result from all of these environmental changes. The Greenhouse Effect will cause dramatic changes in the way we live.

32. Web links http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/ts w/esl-link.htm (common writing problems) http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/ts w/esl-link.htm http://lbarker.orconhosting.net.nz/wor ds.html (words that are often confused) http://lbarker.orconhosting.net.nz/wor ds.html http://www.englishdaily626.com/c- mistakes.php (common mistakes) http://www.englishdaily626.com/c- mistakes.php