1. Important sentence structures

2. Contents: Appositives Enumeration Structures of comparison
Structures of contrast
Cause-effect development

3. Appositives 同位語

4. Constructing appositives
Appositives are used principally to expand the meaning of nouns by supplying defining or identifying details about them.
We can construct an appositive from any sentence in which a noun phrase follows the to be verb (is, are, was, were). Eliminate the subject and the verb, insert commas or dashes.
Generally, we position an appositive next to the noun that it identifies, whether that noun is at the beginning or end of a sentence.

5. Examples:
Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly by digging up entire fields of infested crops. The poinsettia whitefly is a pesticide-resistant superbug.
(Relative clause)
Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, which is a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops.
Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

6. In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter as a health food for the elderly. Peanut butter is the favorite food of American children.
In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter- the favorite food of American children - as a health food for the elderly.

7. Appositives can be just as handy for summarizing or generalizing.
To avoid bankruptcy, some major national
airlines are joining forces with successful
regional airlines, a trend that is likely to
continue.
Example:

8. Short summarizing appositives - appositives of one or two words - can produce a striking effect, especially at the end of a sentence.
Half an hour later, the second police diver returned with the same report - nothing.
Incorporated into humanistic programs in our schools is one of the most dehumanizing practice in education – standardized testing.

9. Longer summarizing appositives can fill in important background information.
The “sunbelt” states of the South and West – states that remained rural and backward during the industrialization of our country – have come to dominate the U.S. economy during the technological revolution.
Bloodhounds are friendly and gentle creatures, not the vicious beasts their name would lead you to expect.

10. When we pack appositives into a series, they summarize by listing characteristics:
In Aesop’s fables, the animals that overcome great odds represent qualities we want for ourselves: power, intelligence, thoughtfulness, and honesty.

11. Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns
Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns. Adjectives can be used as appositives, if we move them from their normal position in front of the noun they modify.
My blind date turned out to be an honest, fun-loving, affectionate, and wonderful person.
My blind date turned out to be a wonderful person – honest, fun-loving, and affectionate.

12. Practice:
1. ____ Stark, forbidding, awesome, spectacular – Death Valley is a hauntingly beautiful place to visit.
2. ____Shanghai is different from other Chinese cities – more European and cosmopolitan.
3. ____ A number of U.S. presidents – including Lincoln, Roosevelt, and Kennedy – have died in office.
4. ____ Appositives are generally set off by commas, dashes, or colons. The different punctuation marks create different effects. o o o
Use a connective (namely, including, especially, particularly, notably, mainly) for providing an example. o

13. Examples:
Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet, a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.
Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet - a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.
Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet: a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.
(hardly calls attention)
(longer pause, more emphatic)
(formality)

14. More examples:
The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.
(essential information)
(not essential information)
(essential information)

15. Enumeration
A writer starts with a general class, then proceeds to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts.
Member or part
Member or part
General class
Member or part
Member or part

16. Four ways for Enumeration:
Ordinal numbers
Pronouns
Descending order
Ascending order

17. Listing signals - Ordinal numbers (1) First, there are … Second,
Third,
Last,
(2) The first kind / type / step is…
The second (Another)
The third (The next)
The last (The final)

18. - To mention the most important one first.
More important
Less
important
(3) Descending order
- To mention the most important one first.
most essential
most important
primary
largest
chief
kind is…
reason is…
The

19. Example:
My chief reason for choosing that university was its wonderful study program in agriculture. Second, Bingston hires only the finest teachers to teach in its graduate program. Then, there was Bingston’s deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. A final reason was the reasonable tuition.

20. (4) Ascending order The - The last item is the most important.
Less
important
More important
(4) Ascending order
- The last item is the most important.
- To emphasize the importance.
most essential
most important
primary
largest
chief
But the
kind is…
reason is…
The
kind, however, is…
reason, however, is…
Finally, and most importantly, there is

21. Example:
There are several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. First of all, the tuition was reasonable. Second, the university had a deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. Another reason was the fact that Bingston hires only the finest of teachers to teach in its graduate program. My chief reason, however, was Bingston’s mandatory study program in argriculture.

22. Structures of comparison

23. Structure 1 - adj. / prep.
Structure 2 – attached statements
Structure 3 – correlative conjunction
Structure 4 – predicate structures
Structure 5 – sentence connectors
Structure 6 – punctuation only

24. Structure 1 - adj. / prep. same…as similar to… like…
Kennedy was killed on the same day of the week as Lincoln.
(adj) (prep)
exactly / almost / practically (degree of similarity)
Kennedy’s death was similar to Lincoln’s in that they both died in office (adj) (prep)
somewhat / rather / very / quite (degree of similarity)
Kennedy’s death was like Lincoln’s.
(prep)
Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to heed his secretary’s warming (basis of comparison)

25. Structure 2 – attached statements
…too
…either
Kennedy was succeeded by a Southern Democrat,
and Lincoln was too.
and so was Lincoln.
Kennedy could arouse the sympathy of the public,
and Lincoln could too.
and so could Lincoln.
Kennedy’s secretary couldn’t prevent the president’s assassination, and Lincoln’s couldn’t either
and neither could Lincoln’s.

26. Structure 3 – correlative conjunction
both…and
Neither...nor
Both Kennedy and Lincoln
Kennedy and Lincoln both had their elections legally challenged.
Neither Kennedy’s wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to happen that day.
Neither Kennedy’s children nor his wife was expecting anything unusual to happen that day.

27. Structure 4 – predicate structures
to resemble
have…in common
There are similarities
Kennedy’s popularity resembled Lincoln’s.
vaguely / closely / greatly (degree of similarity)
Kennedy and Lincoln have features in common.
certain things / many qualities / two characteristics / several aspects
There are similarities between Kennedy and Lincoln.
certain / many / several / two…

28. Structure 5 – sentence connectors
similarly,
correspondingly,
likewise,
in the same way,
Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson;
Lyndon Johnson, a Democrat from the South, succeeded Kennedy.
Note:
A semicolon is often used before a sentence connector. However, since each of the sentences can stand alone and be considered grammatically correct, a period can also be used after the first sentence.

29. Structure 6 – punctuation only
semicolon (;)
Andrew Johnson was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908.
Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; likewise, Kennedy’s was Mrs. Lincoln.

30. Structures of contrast

31. Structure 1 - …than
Structure 2 – prepositions
Structure 3 – adverbial structures
Structure 4 – adjective
Structure 5 – Verbal phrases
Structure 6 – sentence connectors
Structure 7 – conjunctions
Structure 8 – punctuation only

32. Structure 1 - …than is…than as…as The introvert than the extrovert
is quieter
is more reliable
is less optimistic
learns more slowly
The extrovert the introvert.
is not as quieter as
is not as reliable as
does not learns as slowly as

33. Structure 2 – prepositions
Unlike
Contrary to
As opposed to
the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life.
(basis of contrast)
The extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life in the opposite way.

34. Structure 3 – adverbial structures
Whereas
While
the extrovert loses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom does.
(basis of contrast)

35. Structure 4 – adjective opposite / different
There are two models in this case. They are completely opposite (different).
They have opposite views on the question.

36. Structure 5 – Verbal phrases
contrasts with
differs from
is different from
in regard to
in respect of
with respect to
his or her temper.
The introvert
the extrovert
(basis of contrast)

37. Structure 6 – sentence connectors
however,
on the other hand,
in contrast,
The extrovert loves crowds;
the introvert is fond of solitude.
(basis of contrast)
The extrovert loves crowds; the introvert,
is fond of solitude.
however,
on the other hand,
in contrast,

38. Structure 7 – conjunctions
The extrovert loves crowds, the introvert is fond of solitude.
but

39. Structure 8 – punctuation only
The introvert likes books; the extrovert is fond of people.

40. Practice: The extrovert loves crowds.
The introvert is fond of solitude.
The extrovert loves crowds; however, the introvert is
fond of solitude.
2. The introvert is fond of solitude; the extrovert, however,
loves crowds.
3. The extrovert loves crowds. However, the introvert is
4. The extrovert contrasts with the introvert in regard to
need of solitude.
5. Unlike the introvert, who is fond of solitude, the
extrovert loves crowds.
(in regard to + N/Ving = about)

41. Cause and Effect development structural signals
When you use a cause-effect method of development, this will often mean that your are supporting the topic sentence by listing or enumerating.

42. cause # 1 cause # 2 Situation cause # 3 effect # 1
Focus on cause
Focus on effect
cause # 1
cause # Situation
cause # 3
effect # 1
Situation effect # 2
effect # 3
Effect – what a certain situation has led to or has resulted in.
Cause – reasons or explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did.

43. Structure 1 – sentence connectors
Structure 2 – conjunctions
Structure 3 – clause structures
Structure 4 – phrase structures
Structure 5 – predicate structures
Structure 6 – participial phrases

44. Structure 1 – sentence connectors
as a result,
consequently,
therefore,
because of this,
hence,
In some areas,
water levels will fall;
these areas will no longer
be able to support industry.
(cause) (effect)

45. Structure 2 – Conjunctionsso
for (because)
In some areas, water levels will fall, so these areas will no longer be able to support industry.
(cause) (effect)
Some areas will no longer be able to support industry, for water levels will have fallen in these areas.
(effect) (cause)

46. Structure 3 – clause structures
so…that
such…that
such a…that
be so great that
happen so fast that
dry out so much land that
cause such terrible damage that
cause such a severe heat wave that
The rise in temperature will
agricultural patterns will change.
(cause) (effect)

47. Use so that to introduce a clause indicating a purpose.
So that is often used with can or could.
Use so … that to place emphasis on the cause.  Use an adverb or adjective after so.
So modifies an adjective or adverb in the cause-clause.  (Note that very cannot be used in place of so.)
Examples:
1. We stayed out all night so that we could watch a meteor storm.
2. The starts were so bright that we were amazed.
3. The meteor storm was so beautiful that we watched it all night.
4. The meteor storm passed so quickly that it went by in one night.
5. It was such a beautiful meteor storm that we watched it all night.

48. (2) Since Because Since Because Because of the fact that
Due to the fact that
rainfall patterns will change, water supplies will diminish.
(cause) (effect)

49. Structure 4 – phrase structures
Because of
Due to
As a result of
In view of
the increased heat, agricultural patterns will change.
(cause) (effect)

50. Structure 5 – predicate structures
The predicate of a sentence includes everything from the verb to the end. In this group of structures, the cause-effect relationship is indicated either by the verb or the words following it.
(1)
cause
result in
be the reason for
be responsible for
contribute to
lead to
Changes in water levels will
changes in living patterns.
(cause) (effect)

51. (2) (effect) (cause) result from be a result of be a consequence of
be due to
follow from
Drastic changes in living patterns will
changes in water levels.
(effect) (cause)

52. Structure 6 – participial phrases
Participial phrases have no subjects, and contain verbs which are in the –ing form.
(1)
causing
leading to
contributing to
resulting in
Water levels will change,
changes in living patterns.
(cause) (effect)

53. (2) (effect) (cause) resulting from Living patterns will change,
following from
Living patterns will change,
changes in water levels.
(effect) (cause)

54. More examples:
Massive shifts in population will result from all of these environmental changes.
The Greenhouse Effect will cause dramatic changes in the way we live.
All of these environment will change; hence, population will
shift massively.
Because of all the environmental changes, the population will shift massively.
In the way we live will change dramatically, resulting from the Greenhouse Effect.
Dramatic changes in the way we live will follow from the
Greenhouse Effect.

55. Web links
(common writing problems)
(words that are often confused)
(common mistakes)
(grammar)