Chapter 8 Learning.

Chapter 8 Learning

Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience or practice
What words are important in that definition? Relatively permanent Change in behavior Practice

How Do We Learn How Do We Learn Associative Learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and it’s consequence (as in operant conditioning) Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Classical Conditioning
(A.K.A. Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) A type of learning in which an organism comes to associated two previously unrelated stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

Signals Unconditioned Stimulus
Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus Signals Unconditioned Stimulus Produces a response

Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism A perspective of psychology associated with John B. Watson, it is the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies only observable events

Pavlov’s Experiment Ivan Pavlov: ( ) Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose pioneering studies of the digestive system led to decades of research to identify the principles of classical conditioning

Pavlov’s Experiment Labeling the parts of classical conditioning
Unconditioned Response: A simple unlearned response. A reflex Examples:

Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that triggers a response reflexively or automatically Examples:

Neutral Stimulus: Does not elicit (bring about) the unconditioned response

Pavlov’s Experiment When has conditioning occurred?
Conditioning has occurred when the neutral stimulus ALONE elicits (causes) the unconditioned response

Conditioned Stimulus: The conditioned stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus that, through conditioning (learning) gains the power to cause the response

Conditioned Response: The conditioned response is the previously unconditioned response. It is elicited by (caused by) the conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s Experiment

Practice UCS UCR (Before Conditioning)
NS + UCS UCR (Acquisition Phase) CS CR (After Conditioning)

Pavlov’s Experiment Forward Pairing Backward Pairing
The CS is presented BEFORE the UCS Backward Pairing The CS is presented AFTER the UCS (due to the fact that classical conditioning usually prepares the organism for an event, backward conditioning is generally ineffective) Simultaneous Pairing The CS and UCS occur at exact the same time

Acquisition Acquisition
The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase when the organism begins to associate the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus so that eventually the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response Research reveals that acquisition occurs best when the time between the NS and the UCS is about ½ second Acquisition will occur more readily between cues that insure our survival (Examples?)

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
After repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) the conditioned response (CR) fades away and eventually stops.

Reconditioning: if the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) are paired after extinction has occurred, the conditioned response (CR) return to its original strength very quickly, often after one or two trial

Reconditioning: if the CS and the UCS are paired after extinction has occurred, the CR returns to its original strength very quickly, often after one or two trials (What does this tell you about extinction?)

Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, and a lapse of time, the conditioned response reappears The two factors needed for spontaneous recovery to occur are: 1. extinction 2. rest period (lapse of time)

Stimulus Generalization: The organism responds NOT ONLY to the conditioned stimulus (CS) but also to similar stimuli

Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery Stimulus Generalization Example: (Little Albert)

Discrimination Discrimination :
In classical conditioning when an organism responds differently to different stimuli

Cognitive Processes Rescorla believes that whether or not a conditioned response is learned is dependent on the following factors: Timing Predictability Signal Strength Attention Second-Order Conditioning (Higher Order Conditioning) Biopreparedness (Garcia)

Cognitive Processes Timing:
Forward Conditioning is better than either backward or simultaneous conditioning. Furthermore research shows that forward conditioning works best when the delay between the CS and the UCS is only a half a second to full second

Cognitive Processes Predictability
Classical Conditioning occurs most quickly when the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) ALWAYS and ONLY signals the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Cognitive Processes Signal Strength
A Conditioned Response (CR) will be greater and will be established more quickly if the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is strong and distinct. This is also true if the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is strong.

Cognitive Processes Attention:
The stimulus that is being most closely attended to, and most fully perceived at that moment is the stimulus that is most likely to become the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Cognitive Processes Second-Order Conditioning
(Higher Order Conditioning) A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. In other words, an already established Conditioned Stimulus (CS) can serve as an Unconditioned Stimulus.

Cognitive Processes Biopreparedness (Garcia):
Being biologically prepared or genetically tuned to develop certain conditioned associations Example: Taste Aversions (a.k.a. bait shyness)

Recognizing Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
Lucy has flunked algebra twice. Now whenever she sees any kind of math book, she begins to get that same old sick feeling in the pit of her stomach. 2. Little Suzy is experiencing her first thunderstorm. A bolt of lightning flashes across the sky, but this doesn’t bother her; she thinks it’s pretty. A second later, however, she just about jumps out of her skin when a tremendous crash of thunder shakes the room.

3. Otto has gotten A’s on all of his quizzes in history, so he likes Professor Olden quite a bit. But he’s not too crazy about professor Datum, because Otto’s received nothing but C’s and D’s in his research methods class. 4. Glenda tried sushi for the first time when she visited her cousin in San Francisco, and she love it. Back home in Kansas City she eagerly searched until she found a restaurant that served sushi, but the fish wasn’t fresh, so she didn’t like it much. On a visit to St. Louis she tried again, but she was disappointed once more. Glenda no longer gets excited by the prospect of eating sushi, unless it’s San Francisco sushi, which still makes her mouth water.

On his first day at work at the Joy Ice Cream Shop, Arnold helped himself and overdid it. He got sick and swore he’d never eat ice cream again. True to his word, he stayed off the stuff for the rest of the summer, though he continued working at the shop. For a while it was hard, because the sight and smell of the ice cream made him feel nauseous, but eventually those feelings faded. The following summer Arnold decided to visit his old employer, but as soon as he walked in the door, he felt so sick he had to turn around and leave immediately. 6. Little Timmy used to get so excited whenever Grandpa would come to visit, because Grandpa always brought Timmy some neat new toy. As Grandpa got older, however, he became forgetful. He no longer brings toys when he visits. Now Grandpa’s visits don’t excite Timmy as much.

Biological Predispositions
The early behaviorists view that any natural response could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus has given way to the understanding that each species is biologically prepared to learn associations that enhance its survival. Therefore humans more easily learn to fear snakes and spiders than to fear flowers. Rats develop aversions to tastes but not to sights or sounds

Biological Predispositions
Taste Aversion Taste Aversion is unusual because it often only takes a single trial The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) does not need to immediately follow the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) for learning to occur We seemed primed for this learning because from an evolutionary perspective it ensures our survival.

Pavlov’s Legacy Pavlov taught us that principles of learning apply across species and that classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environment. Pavlov also demonstrated that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively. Finally, Pavlov taught us that conditioning principles have important applications such as how to treat fear.

Applications of Classical Conditioning
Learned Immune Response: Classical conditioning has been used to help simulate the effects of drugs that suppress the immune system drugs suppression of immune system UCS UCR NS + UCS UCR CS CR smell smell Suppression of immune system

Phobias: Through classical conditioning and then Stimulus Generalization, a person may learn a phobia

Predator Control: Classical Conditioning (specifically taste aversion) has been used to alleviate the problem of animal predators eating/killing ranchers’ sheep Lithium chloride nausea UCS UCR NS + UCS UCR CS CR sheep nausea sheep

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning vs. Classical Conditioning
1. Bhvr is voluntary 1. Bhvr. is involuntary 2. Learns to associate 2. Learns to associate a bhvr w/the consequence stimuli 3. Organism is active 3. Organism is passive 4. R+ comes AFTER 4. R+ comes BEFORE

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning: The basic learning process (proposed by B.F. Skinner) that involves changing the probability of a response by manipulating the consequences of that response Respondent Behavior: Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (Skinner’s term for behavior learned through classical conditioning) Operant Behavior: Behavior that operated on the environment, producing consequences

Operant Conditioning Laws of Effect (E.L. Thorndike):
Positive Law of Effect: If a behavior is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the likelihood of the behavior occurring again increases. Negative Law of Effect: If a behavior is followed by an unpleasant state of affairs, the likelihood of the behavior occurring again decreases

Operant Conditioning Operant Chamber (Skinner box): An apparatus used by Skinner (developed in the 1930s) to study behavior. Generally, it provides a relatively small and plain environment that blocks out extraneous stimuli and measures behavior

Shaping Shaping: Reinforcing behaviors that move closer and closer to the target behavior When is shaping used? Shaping is used when trying to teach a complex or difficult task Human example?

Types of Reinforcers Reinforcement:
Reinforcement ALWAYS increases the likelihood of a behavior

Types of Reinforcers Positive Reinforcement: Something pleasant is added in order to increase a response

Types of Reinforcers Negative Reinforcement: Something unpleasant
is removed in order to increase a response …

Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcement: something that is naturally rewarding, such as food (if you are hungry), warmth (if you are cold), and water (if you are thirsty). Primary reinforcers are inherently valued. They return the body to homeostasis

2) Operant Conditioning
Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcement: something you have learned is rewarding because it’s been paired with a primary reinforcer. Examples are

Types of Reinforcers Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers
Immediate: Offer immediate payback Example: the nicotine addict’s cigarette Delayed: require the ability to delay gratification A weekly paycheck In general, operant conditioning is stronger when the delivery of the reinforcement is immediate. The size of the reinforcement matters too

Your turn, provide an original example of
Positive Reinforcer: Negative Reinforcer: Primary Reinforcer: Secondary Reinforcer Immediate Reinforcer: Delayed Reinforcer:

Reinforcement Schedules
Schedules of Reinforcement: when and how often the reinforcement occurs Continuous Partial/Intermittent

Continuous Reinforcement Schedules: Each and every correct behavior is reinforced (This is extremely rare in everyday life) Examples:

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some responses are rewarded Fixed Variable Fixed: unchanging Variable: changes Interval: time Ratio: # of responses Interval Ratio

Fixed Interval: The time between reinforcement is unchanging Examples: Fixed Ratio: The number of responses needed for reinforcement is unchanging

Variable Interval: The time between reinforcement changes. (Variable Interval Schedules produce a steady, slow rate of responding) Examples: Variable Ratio: The number of responses needed for reinforcement changes (This schedules produces steady, high rates of responding and is extremely resistant to extinction)

__________1. Sarah is paid on a commission basis for selling
__________1. Sarah is paid on a commission basis for selling computer systems. She gets a bonus for every third sale. __________2. Artie’s parents let him earn some pocket money by doing yard work approximately once a week. __________3. Martha is fly-fishing. Think of each time that she casts her line as the response that may be rewarded. __________4. Mort, who is in the fourth grade, gets a gold star from his teacher for every book he reads. __________5. Skip, a professional baseball player, signs an agreement that his salary increases will be renegotiated every third year.

Is the reinforcement predictable?
Yes= fixed No=Variable If the organism responds more often will it get more reinforcement? Yes=Ratio No=Interval Or… Is the reinforcement based on a passage of time? Yes=Interval Is the reinforcement based on doing a response? Yes=Ratio

Behaviors are learned most rapidly when reinforced on a continuous reinforcement schedules However, behaviors extinguish the fastest when reinforced on a continuous schedule

Behaviors reinforced on partial schedules of reinforcement (especially variable schedules) are the most difficult to extinguish because it takes the organism a long time to figure out the reinforcement has stopped

Guided Practice Being rewarded for every third correct answer. Giving a rat a pellet of food for pressing a bar on the AVERAGE of every two minutes. Giving a student a blow pop every time he/she provides a correct answer. Paying telemarketers a bonus for every 5 sales he/she makes in excess of the company’s quota. Trying to reach a friend by telephone when you get a busy signal.

RECOGNIZING SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Check your understanding of schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning by indicating the type of schedule that would be in effect in each of the examples below. In the spaces on the left, fill in CR for continuous reinforcement, FR for fixed-ratio, VR for variable-ratio, FI for fixed-interval, and VI for variable-interval. __________1. Sarah is paid on a commission basis for selling computer systems. She gets a bonus for every third sale. __________2. Artie’s parents let him earn some pocket money by doing yard work approximately once a week. __________3. Martha is fly-fishing. Think of each time that she casts her line as the response that may be rewarded. __________4. Mort, who is in the fourth grade, gets a gold star from his teacher for every book he reads. __________5. Skip, a professional baseball player, signs an agreement that his salary increases will be renegotiated every third year.

Punishment Punishment: Always decreases the likelihood of a response
Something that decreases the likelihood of a response

Punishment Positive Punishment (Punishment I):
Behavior is decreased by presenting an unpleasant stimulus Examples: Fine for an overdue book. Spanking for swearing. A burn on your finger when you touch a hot iron.

Punishment Negative Punishment (Punishment II or Penalty)
Behavior is decreased by removing a pleasant stimulus Example: You’re careless with your ice cream cone and the cones falls on the ground

Punishment Some disadvantages of using punishment:
The undesirable behavior is not “erased” it is merely suppressed Punishment doesn’t teach acceptable behavior Punishment can create anger and hostility Punishment is ineffective unless it is administered immediately after the undesired event Punishment can only work when it is guaranteed

Discriminative Stimulus Operant Response Consequence
Effect on Future Behavior Definition The environmental stimulus that precedes an operant response The actively emitted or voluntary behavior The environmental stimulus or event that follows the operant response Reinforcement increases the likelihood of operant being repeated; punishment or lack of reinforcement decreases the likelihood of operant being repeated Examples Neighbor in yard Talk to neighbor Pleasant conversation Positive reinforcement: More likely to talk to neighbor in the future when he is out in the yard Red oil light Shut off car engine Avoid engine damage Negative reinforcement: More likely to shut off car in the future when red oil light is present Poison ivy plant Touch plant Painful, itchy rash on hand Punishment: Less likely to touch poison ivy plant in the future

Recognizing Components of Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Josh studies to avoid the aversive or unpleasant consequence of bad grades. His studying behavior is maintained by: A. Positive Reinforcement C. Punishment B. Negative Reinforcement D. Primary Reinforcement 2. Katie’s room is a mess. Her parents agree to increase her allowance by $5 each week if she cleans her room every Tuesday. A. Positive Reinforcement C. Punishment by Application B. Negative Reinforcement D. Punishment by Removal 3. Judy’s dog, Murphy, will roll over, beg, and do other tricks for a food reward. However, when offered a $10 bill, he won’t do any of these tricks. It appears that Murphy is more responsive to _________________ than to _______________ A. Positve Reinforcers; Negative Reinforcers B. Bribery; Corruption C. Primary Reinforcers; Conditioned Reinforcers D. Punishment; Positive Reinforcement 4. Zachary works on a cattle ranch. When the chuck wagon comes around, the cook rings a big metal bell to signal that the food is ready. Whenever Zak and the other cowhands hear the sound of the bell, they head straight for the chuck wagon. In this example, the sound of the bell is a(n): A. Primary Reinforcer C. Unconditioned Stimulus B. Negative Reinforcer D. Discriminative Stimulus 5. Seeing a stranded motorist, Dean stopped to see if he could help. The stranded motorist robbed Dean and stole his car. Dean no longer stops to help strangers. This is an example of: B. Primary Reinforcement D. Negative Reinforcement

Punishment Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Something unpleasant is Something unpleasant REMOVED PRESENTED Behavior INCREASES in Behavior DECREASES likelihood in likelihood

Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Latent Learning Cognitive Map: A mental representation or picture of the layout of one’s environment Rats were put in a learning maze. 1 group were reinforced every trial. They made few errors. 1 group got no reinforcement, they continued to make errors. The 3rd group received no reinforcement for the first 10 trials. On the 11th trial the rats in the 3rd group were reinforced. These rats were as good as the rats that were reinforced for each trial showing that the 3rd group had a cognitive map of the maze Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Intrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake Extrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Skinner’s Legacy Skinner has been criticized for repeatedly insisting that external influences, not internal thoughts and feelings, shape behavior and for urging the use of operant principles to control people’s behavior. Critics argue that he dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and by seeking to control their actions. Skinner countered: People’s behavior is already controlled by external reinforcers, so why not administer those consequences for human betterment.

Applications of Operant Conditioning
At School On-line testing systems & interactive student software provide immediate reinforcement In Sports Coaches can build players’ skills & self-confidence by rewarding small improvements At Work Positive reinforcement for a job well done has boosted employee productivity At Home Parents can reward behaviors that are desirable & not those that are undesirable. To reach our own personal goals we can monitor and reinforce our own desired behaviors

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Response Involuntary, automatic Voluntary, operates on the environment Acquisition Associating events; CS predicts UCS Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher) Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone Responding decreases when reinforcement stops Cognitive Process Organism develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of the UCS Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement Biological Predisposition Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones

Learning by Observation
Observational Learning: Learning by watching others Observational Learning is adaptive for both humans and animals. Humans develop the capacity for Observational Learning at a very young age. Studies of 21 day old infants have shown that they will imitate a variety of actions, including opening their mouths, sticking out their tongues, and making other facial expressions

Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Mirror Neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

The factors that Bandura believed are necessary for learning to take place are Attention Memory Motor skills Motivation

Bandura’s Experiments
Bobo Doll Experiments You are more likely to imitate… People who are rewarded for their behavior Warm, nuturant people People who have control or influence over you People who are similar to you Tasks that aren’t extremely easy or hard Situations that are unfamiliar If you’ve been rewarded for imitating in the past

Bandura’s Experiments
Applications of Observational Learning It is important to note that we not only imitate positive models, we may also imitate antisocial models (examples: Columbine, TV programs that model casual sex or aggressive behavior) Children may also learn through observation to be abusive parents

Positive Observational Learning
Prosocial Behavior: Prosocial models have prosocial effects. People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others. Models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent. Exposed to a hypocrite, children tend to imitate the hypocrisy by doing what the model did and saying what the model says

Television and Observational Learning
What are you being asked to believe or accept? Viewing violence on television causes violent behavior in viewers What evidence is available to support the assertion? There is some anecdotal evidence & case studies that describe incidents of violence among children after watching violence on TV. Many studies who a positive correlation between watching & doing violence. Controlled studies show increases in violent behavior following violent visual stimulation

Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence? Anecdotal evidence and correlational evidence do not prove causation. It may be possible that the dependent variables used in controlled studies are not similar enough to violence in everyday life.

What additional evidence would help to evaluate the alternative? More controlled studies are needed to better understand the relationship between viewing violence and committing violent acts. However, ethical considerations prohibit these types of studies.

What conclusions are most reasonable? The large number of studies done in this area make it reasonable to conclude that watching TV violence may be one cause of violent behavior

Other Important Terms Counter Conditioning +

Other Important Terms Escape Conditioning

Other Important Terms Avoidance Conditioning

Other Important Terms Learned Helplessness

Other Important Terms Premack’s Principle

Other Important Terms Disequilibrium Hypothesis

Other Important Terms Overjustification Effect

Chapter 8 Learning.

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