1. A Course in Phonetics Ladefoged & Johnson Chapter 3
Consonants Part II
A Course in Phonetics
Ladefoged & Johnson
Chapter 3

2. Fricatives
Vowels before voiceless fricatives are shorter than before voiced fricatives
strife [straɪf] strive [straɪv]
teeth [tiɵ] teethe [tið]
rice [raɪs] rise [raɪz]
mission [mɪʃnˌ] vision [viʒnˌ]

3. Fricatives
Voiceless fricative at the end of a word is longer than a voiced fricative at the end of a word.
Safe [seɪf] save [seɪv]
Lace [leɪs] laze [leɪz]

4. Stops and Fricatives Similarities
Vowels before voiceless stops and fricatives are shorter than before voiced.
Final voiceless stops and fricatives are longer than voiced.
Final voiced stops and fricatives aren not actually voiced throughout the articulation unless adjacent sounds are also voiced.
Stops and fricatives are also known as obstruents, since they do obstruct the airflow in some way.

5. Labialization
Action of the lips are added to the articulation of the fricatives.
strongly labialized /ʃ/ /ʒ/
mildly labialized /s/ /z/

6. Affricates
/ʧ/ and /ʤ/
Combination of a stop immediately followed by a fricative.
These are the only two affricates in English.
May occur at the beginning and end of words.
judge [ʤʌʤ] church [ʧɝʧ]

7. Nasals
Together with /r , l/ can be syllabic when they occur at the end of a word.
This is marked by /ˌ/ under the symbol.
Sadden [sædnˌ]
Table [tæblˌ]
Jack and Kate [ʤæk nˌ keɪt]

8. Nasals /ŋ/ No English word can begin with /ŋ/
It can only be preceded by the vowels
/ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʌ, ɑ/
It can not be syllabic. Except in
Jack and Kate [ʤæk ŋˌ keɪt]

9. Change over time sing [sɪng] [sɪŋg] [sɪŋ] sink [sɪnk] [sɪŋk]
singer [sɪŋɝ]
finger [fɪŋgɝ]
New York = [sɪŋgɝ]

10. Approximants /w, r, l/ whack [wæk] rack [ræk] lack [læk]
They are largely voiceless when they follow a voiceless stop /p, t, k/
Play [pl˳eɪ] twice [tw˳aɪs] clay [kl˳eɪ]
/j/ yak [ jæk]
Can also occur in consonant clusters
Pew [pju] cue [kju]

11. Velarization
The tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, the center of the tongue is pulled down and the back is arched upward. /l/
The alveolar ridge = primary articulation
Arched back of the tongue = secondary articulation
The mark for velarization is [~] through the middle of the symbol / ɫ / [ ɫif ]

12. / h /
In most instances it can only occur before stressed vowels or before the approximant / j / as in hue [hju].
Sometimes there is a /h/ before /w/ so that which [hwɪʧ] and witch [wɪʧ] are contrasted.
This is sometimes represented by an inverted w /ʍ/
This is disappearing in American English.

13. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
Consonants are longer when at the end of a phrase.
bib, did, don, nod
Voiceless stops are aspirated when they are initial sounds.
Pip [pʰɪp test [tʰɛst] kick [kʰɪk]
Obstruents – (stops and fricatives) voiced and slightly obstruct the airflow.

14. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
Voiced stops and fricatives /b, d, g, ʤ/ are voiceless when syllable initial, except when preceded by a voiced sound (a day)
Voiceless stops / p, t, k/ are unaspirated after / s / (spew, stew, skew)
Voiceless obstruents / p, t, k, ʧ, f, ɵ, s, ʃ / are longer than the voiced obstruents /b, d, g, ʤ, v, ð, z, ʒ /

15. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
The approximants / w, r, j, l / are at least partially voiceless when they occur after initial / p, t, k / as in play, twin, cue.
The gestures for consecutive stops overlap, so that stops are unexploded when they occur before another stop
Apt [æp̚ t] rubbed [ rʌb̚ d]

16. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
In many accents of English, final syllable / p, t, k/ are accompanied by an overlapping glottal stop gesture
Tip [tɪʔp] pit [pɪʔt] kick [kɪʔk]
In many accents of English, / t / is replaced by a glottal stop when it occurs before an alveolar nasal in the same word . Beaten [biʔnˌ]

17. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
Nasals are syllabic at the end of a word when immediately after an obstruent.
leaden [lɛdnˌ] chasm [ʧæzmˌ]
The lateral / l / is syllabic at the end of a word when immediately after a consonant.
whistle [wɪslˌ] kennel [kɛnlˌ]

18. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
Alveolar stops become voiced taps when they occur between two vowels, the second of which is unstressed.
City [sɪʕi]
Alveolar consonants become dentals before dental consonants.
Eighth [eɪt̪ɵ] tenth [tɛn̪ɵ] wealth [wɛl̪ɵ]

19. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
Alveolar stops are reduced or omitted when between two consonants.
Most people [moʊs ‘piplˌ]
Send papers [sɛn peɪpɝz]
A consonant is shortened when it is before an identical consonant.
Cap, kept, kit, key
Gap, get, give, geese

20. Rules for English Consonant Allophones
Velar stops become more front before front vowels.
Gap, get, give, geese
The lateral / l / is velarized when after a vowel or before a consonant at the end of a word.
Life [laɪf] file [faɪɫ]
Clap [klæp] talc [tæɫk]
Feeling [filɪŋ] feel [fiɫ]

21. Diacritics Some diacritics modify the value of a symbol
/ ˳ / Voiceless
/ʰ / aspirated
/ ̪ / Dental
/ ˜ / Nasalized
/ ~ / Velarized
/ ˌ / Syllabic