1. LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT6
A Topical Approach to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive Developmental Approaches
John W. Santrock

2. Cognitive Developmental Approaches
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood

3. Processes of Development
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Processes of Development
Piaget observed own 3 children; believed six processes used in constructing knowledge
Schemes
Assimilation
Accommodation
Organization
Equilibrium
Equilibration

4. Schemes Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Schemes
Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Behavioral schemes: physical activities characterizing infancy
Mental schemes: cognitive activities develop in childhood

5. Assimilation and Accommodation
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Assimilation and Accommodation
Both operate even in very young infants
Assimilation — incorporate new information into existing knowledge schemes
Accommodation — adjust schemes to fit new information and experiences

6. Organization Children cognitively organize experiences
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Organization
Children cognitively organize experiences
- Grouping isolated behaviors into a
higher-order, more smoothly functioning
cognitive system
- Grouping items into categories

7. Equilibrium and Equilibration
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Equilibrium and Equilibration
Mechanisms proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next
Disequilibrium — shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict
Equilibration — they resolve conflict through assimilation and accommodation, to reach a new balance or equilibrium of thought

8. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Stages of Development
Piaget’s theory unifies experiences and biology to explain cognitive development
Motivation is internal search for equilibrium
Four stages of development…progressively advanced and qualitatively different

9. Sensorimotor stage First of Piaget’s stages Birth to about 2 years
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage
First of Piaget’s stages
Birth to about 2 years
Infants construct understanding of world by coordinating sensory experiences with motoric actions
Contains six substages

10. Sensorimotor Substages
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Substages 2 3 1
Simple reflexes
Basic means of coordinating sensation and action through reflexive behaviors
First habits and
primary circular
reactions
Infants’ infant’s attempt to reproduce interesting or pleasurable event (1-4 mos)
Secondary
circular reactions
Infant is more object- oriented moving beyond preoccupation with the self (4-8 months)

11. Sensorimotor Substages
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Substages 4 5 6
Coordination of secondary
circular reactions
Significant changes in
coordination of schemes
and intentionality (8-12 mos)
Tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiosity
Intrigued by objects’ many
properties; explores new possibilities with them (12-18 mos)
Internalization of Schemes
Ability to use primitive
symbols; shift to mental
manipulation (18-24 mos)

12. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Object Permanence
Understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched
One of infant’s most important accomplishments
Acquired in stages
Violation of expectations testing

13. Infant’s Understanding of Causality
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Infant’s Understanding of Causality
(b)
(c)
(a)
Fig. 6.5

14. Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
New research techniques suggest Piaget’s theory needs to be modified
Some abilities develop earlier
Intermodal perception; substantiality and permanence of objects
Transitions not as clear-cut; AB error
Objects seen as separate at much younger age; possibly at birth or shortly after

15. Preoperational Stage Second Piagetian developmental stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Preoperational Stage
Second Piagetian developmental stage
About 2 to 7 years of age; two substages
Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings
Not ready to perform Operations
Internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what before they only did physically
Reversible mental actions

16. The Symbolic Function Substage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Symbolic Function Substage
Symbolic function
Egocentrism
Animism
First substage of preoperational thought; young child gains ability to represent mentally an object that is not present (2-4 years)
Inability to distinguish between one’s own and another’s view
Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, capable of action

17. The Three Mountains Task
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Three Mountains Task
View 1
Child seated here
(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
View 2
Fig. 6.6

18. The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children
(a) A 31/2-year-old’s symbolic drawing. Halfway into this drawing, the 31/2-year-old artist said it was “a pelican kissing a seal.”
(b) This 11-year-old’s drawing is neater and more realistic but also less inventive.
Fig. 6.7

19. The Intuitive Thought Substage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Intuitive Thought Substage
Children begin using primitive reasoning and want to know answers to all sorts of questions (4-7 years)
Why? questions exhaust adults
Centration — focusing attention on one characteristic to exclusion of others
Conservation — object’s amount stays same regardless of changing appearance; lacking in preoperational stage

20. Piaget’s Conservation Task
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Conservation Task
Fig. 6.8

21. Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length
Fig. 6.9

22. Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget’s third stage (7-11 years)
Children can perform concrete operations
Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning if applied to specific, concrete examples
Horizontal Décalage
Similar abilities do not appear at same time within stage of development such as conservation abilities

23. Classification Skills
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Classification Skills
Concrete operations child understands one person can be father, brother, and grandson
Seriation — involves stimuli along quantitative dimension (e.g. length)
Transitivity — if relation holds between first and second object, and holds between the second and third object, then it holds between first and third object

24. Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought
Fig. 6.10

25. Formal Operational Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Formal Operational Stage
Individuals move beyond concrete operations and think in more abstract and logical ways (11-15 years)
Abstract, Idealistic, and Logical Thinking
Verbal problem-solving ability increases
Increased ability to think about thought itself
Thought is full of idealism and possibilities

26. Formal Operational Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Formal Operational Stage
Children solve problems by trial-and-error
Adolescents think more like scientists
Assimilation dominates initial development
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Have cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce the best path to follow in solving a problem

27. Adolescent Egocentrism
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Adolescent Egocentrism
Heightened adolescents’ self-consciousness
Imaginary audience
Belief that others are as interested in them as they are
Involves attention-getting behavior motivated by desire to be noticed, visible, and “on stage”
Personal fable — adolescent’s sense of uniqueness and invincibility

28. Piaget and Education Take a constructivist approach
Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Piaget and Education
Take a constructivist approach
Facilitate rather than direct learning
Consider child’s knowledge, level of thinking
Use ongoing assessment
Promote the student’s intellectual health
Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery

29. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Contributions
New way of looking at children as active thinkers
Criticisms
Some estimates of children’s competence is inaccurate
Development not uniformly stage-like
Effects of training
Culture and education influence development

30. Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Neo-Piagetians
Argue Piaget got some things right, but theory needs revision
More emphasis to memory, attention, information-processing strategies, and processing speed

31. Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Social contexts; minds are shaped by cultural context in which they live
Tools are provided by society
Children actively construct their knowledge and understanding through social interactions

32. The Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with guidance and assistance from more-skilled person
Scaffolding
Changing level of support over course of a teaching session to fit child’s current performance level

33. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
Fig. 6.11

34. Vygotsky: Language and Thought
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky: Language and Thought
Believed young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor behavior
Language and thought initially develop independently, then merge
Private speech: language of self-regulation
Self talk (3 to 7 years of age)
Inner talk: child’s thoughts

35. Teaching Strategies based on Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Teaching Strategies based on Vygotsky’s Theory
Successfully applied to education
Use child’s ZPD
Use more-skilled peers as teachers
Monitor and encourage private speech
Effectively assess child’s ZPD
Instruction in meaningful context
Transform classroom

36. Guided Participation Widely used around the world
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Guided Participation
Widely used around the world
Culture may differ in goals of development
Child’s responsibilities revised as skill and knowledge are gained
Chewa of Zambia
Maya of Guatemala

37. Evaluating Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Evaluating Vygotsky’s Theory
Social constructivist approach — emphasize social contexts of learning and construction of knowledge through social interaction
Shift from individual to collaborative learning
Teachers facilitate and guide, not direct and mold
May overemphasize language’s role in thinking
Facilitators may help too much; make child lazy

38. Piaget’s View of Adult Cognition
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood
Piaget’s View of Adult Cognition
Thinking qualitatively in formal operations same as adolescents
Adults have more knowledge
Research shows:
Many don’t reach highest level until adulthood
Many adults don’t use formal operational thinking

39. Cognitive Changes in Adulthood
Thinking of young adults is beyond formal operational stage of adolescents. It is…
Realistic — Idealism decreases in face of real world constraints
Pragmatic — Switch from acquiring knowledge to applying it
Reflective and Relativistic — Move away from absolutist thinking of adolescence

40. Is There A Fifth, Postformal Stage?
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood
Is There A Fifth, Postformal Stage?
Postformal thought is
Reflective, relativistic, and contextual
Provisional
Realistic
Open to emotions and subjective
More research needed
Another possible stage may be wisdom

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The End