1. Unit 2: Matter and Energy
A Summary of How Theories Develop in Science:
– based on a series of verifiable observations & measurements. 
leads to a
conclusion
based on
inductive
reasoning - 
tests must
be...
– other people must be able to repeat and verify or reject tests.
a theory arises
scientific
theories
enable
researchers to
make...
– that guides research and opens-up new questions.
conclusions drawn on evidence can be tested with an experiment or additional observations.

2. Identify what is wrong with each of the following statements.
1.Everybody knows that gravity exists. There is so much proof for the Law of Gravity that it will not change.
2.Although many scientists believe in evolution, there are still many things that cannot be explained by evolutionary biologists. Therefore, it is just a theory.
3.After completing our lab, we proved that the theory of enzyme activity was right.

3. – the basic unit of matter
Basic Chemistry
– the basic unit of matter
Electron configuration of oxygen
– center of the atom
– positively charged particles (+)
– particles that carry no charge
– negatively charged particles (-), 1/1840 the mass of a proton (equal, but opposite charge)
– spaces that electrons have the greatest probability of being found

4. The Periodic Table
Element –

5. The Element Carbon on the Period Table6
Atomic number C
Why is the atomic mass of carbon not exactly twelve?
Carbon
12.011
Atomic mass
Atomic number –
Atomic mass –
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6. The 6 most common elements that make up living organisms:
Elements Found in Biological Organisms
The 6 most common elements that make up living organisms:
CHONSP or SPONCH
The Periodic Table of Elements

7. Compounds and Chemical Bonds
Two Main Types of Chemical Bonds:
Ionic Bonds –
Covalent Bonds –

8. Why Ionic Bonds Are Important to Life
Break apart easily in water
The ions are used to transfer positive or negative charges in cells (i.e. allows information, materials, and short-term energy to be exchanged)

9. Why Covalent Bonds Are Important to Life
Store energy in the bonds (this energy can be used for growth, movement, etc by an organism)
Do not break apart in water (the bodies of plants and animals are mostly water – glucose will not release its energy)
Form the building blocks of life (proteins, fats, etc. are made of covalent bonds)

10. 2-2 Properties of Water
Water is the single most abundant compound in most living things and it possesses many special properties. Water is one of the few compounds that is liquid at the temperatures found over much of the Earth’s surface. When water does freeze, it expands, becomes less dense than liquid water, and floats.

11. Polarity of Water Water is a polar molecule –
Oxygen has more electrons, so it is more negatively charged (i.e. it is electronegative and pulls electrons to it)
Hydrogen has fewer electrons, so it is more positive than negatively charged

12. Hydrogen Bonding in Water
– weak bond formed with a positively charged hydrogen atom and other negatively charged atoms
Waters polarity and hydrogen bonds give it unusual properties
It easily forms a solid (ice), liquid, and gas (vapor).
Cohesion – a property dependent upon the strength of attractive forces between molecules of the same substance (water to water)
Adhesion – a property dependent upon the strength of attractive forces between molecules of different substances (water to glass)

13. Why Water Is Necessary to Life
Cl-
Cl-
Na+
Na+
Water
Water
Water is a solvent –
Solute –
Water breaks some chemicals apart, allowing atoms to interact and move around, so chemical reactions can take place easily.
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14. The Chemistry of Carbon
Figure 2-11 Carbon Compounds
Butadiene
Methane
Acetylene
Isooctane
Benzene
Carbon has 4 valence electrons, allowing it to bond to 4 other atoms
Carbon forms strong covalent bonds
Carbon bonds easily with other carbon atoms, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogren, sulfur, and phosphorous =
Organic Compounds -
Organic compounds interact to perform the basic functions of life

15. Macromolecules - Macromolecules are built buy joining smaller molecules together.
Monomers - small unit that joins together with other small units to form polymers.
Polymers - large compound formed from combinations from many monomers.

16. Carbohydrates
Starch
Glucose
Carbohydrates - compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms usually in a ratio of 1:2:1.
Functions as the energy source for most living things
Monosaccharide – simple sugar molecules (glucose, fructose, galactose)
Polysaccharide – chains of monosaccharides
Glycogen – stored in muscles and the liver of animals
Starch – stored in plants
Cellulose – found in the stalks of plants, provides strength and rigidity

17. Lipids
Lipids - macromolecule made mainly from carbon and hydrogen atoms; includes fats, oils and waxes.
Functions as an energy source and makes up part of the cell membrane and steroid hormones
Formed when glycerol binds to fatty acids
Insoluble in water
Saturated fats – lipids that have the maximum possible number of hydrogen bonds
Unsaturated fats – lipids that contain some double bonds

18. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids - macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorous.
Functions as genetic structure, transmits hereditary information
Nucleotide – building blocks of nucleic acids
Types of nucleic acids
DNA
RNA
Structure of DNA

19. Proteins
Amino
acids
Proteins macromolecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
Function as enzymes, hormones, builds the structure in bones, muscle and organs
Amino acid – the building blocks of proteins

20. Amino Acids
Amino group
Carboxyl group
General structure
Alanine
Serine
Amino acids - compounds with an amino group (-NH2) on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end.
There are 20 different amino acids that can combine to form proteins. Proteins are made up hundreds of amino acids bonded together and then folded into a particular shape.

21. Macromolecules

22. Complete the Diagram Concept Map Carbon Compounds Word Bank:
include
Carbohydrates
Proteins
that consist of
that consist of
that consist of
that consist of
Glycerol & Fatty Acids
which contain
which contain
which contain
which contain
Carbon,
hydrogen,
oxygen
Carbon,hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus
Word Bank:
Carbon,hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur Monosaccharides Nucleotides
Nucleic acids Lipids Amino Acids
Carbon,hydrogen,oxygen

23. Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reactions - a process that changes one set of chemicals into another
Metabolism – the sum of all the body’s chemical reactions
Energy-Absorbing Reaction
Energy-Releasing Reaction
CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
Products
Activation
energy
Activation energy
Reactants
Reactants
Products
Example – Photosynthesis (synthesis)
Reactants = CO2 + H2O
Products = C6H12O6 + O2
Example – Cell Respiration (decomposition)
Reactants = C6H12O6 + O2
Products = CO2 + H2O

24. Energy in Reactions
Reaction pathway
without enzyme
Activation energy
without enzyme
Reactants
Activation
energy
with enzyme
Reaction pathway
with enzyme
Products
Activation energy – the amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction
What is an enzyme?

25. Enzymes Enzyme – complex proteins that lower the activation energy
Speed up the chemical reactions in a cell
Lower the temperature needed for the reaction to occur
Act as catalysts – speed up reactions, but are not used up (can be used over and over)

26. Factors that Affect Enzyme Action
Temperature
Surface Area pH
Explain how each of these might affect the function of an enzyme

27. The pH Scale
The pH scale indicates the concentration of H+ ions in solution
At pH 7, the concentration of H+ ions and OH- ions is equal
Acid – any compound that forms H+ ions in solution
Base – any compound that produces OH- ions in solution
Buffer – a weak acid or base that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH
Fluids in most cells must be kept between 6.5 and 7.5 or the reactions in cells will be effected
Oven cleaner
Bleach
Ammonia solution
Increasingly Basic
Soap
Sea water
Human blood
Neutral
Pure water
Milk
Normal
rainfall
Acid rain
Increasingly Acidic
Tomato
juice
Lemon juice
Stomach acid

28. How Enzymes Work