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THE HUMAN BODY: An Orientation
CHAPTER ONE: THE HUMAN BODY: An Orientation
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I. WHAT IS ANATOMY? Anatomy = study of the structure and shape of body parts and how they relate to each other Ana = apart Tomy = to cut What does anatomy literally mean? To cut apart
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THREE MAIN TYPES OF ANATOMY
Gross Microscopic Developmental
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GROSS ANATOMY 1. Gross anatomy (macroscopic) = the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the: - heart - kidney - lung A. Regional Anatomy = All of the structures in one particular region of the body, such as the abdomen or leg. B. Systemic Anatomy = the gross anatomy of the body is studied system by system. C. Surface Anatomy = the study of body structures as they relate to the overlying skin
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MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY 2. Microscopic Anatomy = Concerns structures too small to be seen with the naked eye. Cytology = the study of cells cyto = cell Histology = the study of tissues histo = tissue
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DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY
3. Developmental anatomy = traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span A. Embryology = concerns environmental changes in the embryo prior to birth
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SPECIALIZED BRANCHES OF ANATOMY
Used primarily for medical diagnosis and scientific research. Anatomic Pathology = the study of structural changes caused by disease Radiographic Anatomy = studies internal structures through x-ray Molecular Biology = the structure of biological molecules is investigated.
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TOOLS FOR STUDYING ANATOMY
Anatomic terminology Observation Manipulation Palpation = feeling organs with your hands Auscultation = listening to organ sounds with a stethoscope
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II. WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY? Physiology = study of how the body and its part work or function Physio = nature Ology = the study of What does physiology literally mean? The study of nature
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TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY Renal Physiology = considers kidney function and urine production Neurophysiology = Explains the functioning of the nervous system Cardiovascular Physiology = Studies the functioning of the heart and blood vessels
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III. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy and physiology are always related Each part of your body has a job (function) Structure determines the function Principle of complementarity of structure and function: what a structure can do depends on its specific form Examples?? Bones Heart
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IV. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
Chemical Cellular Tissue Organ Organ system Organism
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Organ Systems Integumentary Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine
Cardiovascular Lymphatic/Immunity Respiratory Digestive 10. Urinary 11. Reproductive
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V. MAINTAINING LIFE Necessary Life Functions
1. Maintaining boundaries – separating internal vs. external environments 2. Movement 3. Responsiveness – reaction to stimuli 4. Digestion – breaking down food/chemicals 5. Metabolism – all chemical reactions in a body 6. Excretion – getting rid of wastes 7. Reproduction – producing new cells for growth 8. Growth – occurs when building activities are faster than destroying activities
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V. MAINTAINING LIFE Survival Needs
1. Nutrients – carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and minerals 2. Oxygen – necessary for cellular respiration 3. Water – basis of body fluids, 60% of body weight 4. Normal body temperature 5. Atmospheric pressure – needed for proper breathing Just having these needs are not enough You need to have them at the correct amounts
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VI. HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis = ability of the body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously
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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK Negative feedback mechanisms = causes the variable to change in the opposite direction, returning to its ideal level. Examples: 1. Regulation of body temperature 2. Blood Sugar 3. Heart Rate Others??
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EXAMPLES OF HOMEOSTASIS CONTROLLED BY NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
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POSITIVE FEEDBACK Positive feedback mechanisms:
the response enhances the original stimulus so the original activity is accelerated Less common than negative feedback Examples 1. Blood Clotting 2. Enhancement of labor contractions during childbirth
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EXAMPLE OF POSITIVE FEEDBACK
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Why would you have a hard time learning and understanding physiology if you did not also understand anatomy?
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The Language of Anatomy
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I. THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
Why use a special kind of language? Why can’t we just say things like, above or below? The human body has so many different shapes and areas to it that saying “above” or “below” is not specific enough We need a special language in order to know exactly which location someone is talking about
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II. ANATOMICAL POSITION
Most body terminology refers to the body when it is in anatomical position Anatomical position = body is upright, feet parallel, and arms hang at the side with palms facing forward (thumbs pointing away from the body)
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Anatomical Position
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III. DIRECTIONAL TERMS Directional terms = allow anatomists and medical personnel to explain where one body structure is in relation to another How would YOU describe where your ears are in relation to your nose? Anatomists would say the ears are lateral to the nose
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Directional Terms Superior (cranial or cephalad) = above, toward the head Inferior (caudal) = below, towards lower part of body Ventral (anterior) = in front of, on the front side of the body Dorsal (posterior) = behind, on the backside of the body
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Directional Terms Medial = towards the midline of the body
Lateral = away from the midline of the body Intermediate = between a more medial and a more lateral structure
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Directional Terms Proximal = close to the trunk of the body
Distal = away from the truck of the body Superficial = towards or at the surface of the body Deep = away from the surface, internal
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Directional Terms
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Practicing Directional Terms
Using the definitions above or Table 1.1 on pg. 15 of your text, use the correct direction term to complete the sentence. The breastbone is ________________ to the spine. The brain is ___________________ to the spinal cord. The ankle is __________________ to the foot. The skin is __________________ to the muscles.
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IV. REGIONAL TERMS Regional terms are used point to specific parts on the surface of the body To make it slightly easier, we will split the regional terms up into two groups: anterior and posterior
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Anterior Body Landmarks
Abdominal = anterior body trunk, inferior to ribs Acromial = shoulder Antebrachial = forearm Antecubital = anterior surface of elbow Axillary = armpit
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Anterior Body Landmarks
Brachial = arm Buccal = cheek Carpal = wrist Cervical = neck Coxal = hip Crural = leg
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Anterior Body Landmarks
Deltoid = curve of shoulder made by the deltoid muscle Digital = fingers and toes Femoral = thigh Fibular = lateral part of leg Frontal = forehead
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Anterior Body Landmarks
Inguinal = area where thigh meets body trunk, groin Mental = chin Nasal = nose area Oral = mouth Orbital = eye area Patellar = anterior knee
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Anterior Body Landmarks
Pelvic = area overlying the pelvis Pubic = genital region Sternal = breastbone area Tarsal = ankle region Thoracic = chest Umbilical = navel
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Posterior Body Landmarks
Calcaneal = heel of foot Cephalic = head Femoral = thigh Gluteal = buttock Lumbar = area of back between ribs and hips Occipital = posterior surface of head, base of skull
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Posterior Body Landmarks
Olecranal = posterior surface of elbow Plantar = sole of foot Popliteal = posterior knee area Sacral = area between hips Scapular = shoulder blade region Sural = posterior surface of leg, the calf Vertebral = area of spinal column
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V. BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS
Section = cut Plane = imaginary line in which a section is made through the body wall or organ Three main types of sections: Sagittal Frontal Transverse
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Sagittal Section Sagittal section = cuts along the lengthwise plane of the body Divides the body into right and left parts Median (midsagittal) section = sagittal cut directly down the midline of the body, making equal right and left halves Any sagittal section that is not median, is parasagittal Para = near
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Sagittal Section
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Frontal Section Frontal section = lengthwise cut that divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts Can also be called a coronal section
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Frontal Section
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Transverse Section Transverse section = a cut along a horizontal plane that divides the body or organ into superior and inferior parts Can also be called a cross section
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Transverse Section
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VI. BODY CAVITIES Two main body cavities: Dorsal Ventral
Each cavity (dorsal and ventral) also contains smaller cavities and regions
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Dorsal Cavity Has two subdivisions:
Cranial cavity = space inside the bony skull Brain is protected in this cavity Spinal cavity = extends from the cranial cavity to the end of the vertebral column Spinal cord is protected in this cavity by the vertebrae
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Dorsal Cavity
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Ventral Cavity Much larger than the dorsal cavity
Contains all structures within chest and abdomen
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Ventral Cavity Three subdivisions:
Thoracic cavity = contains lungs, heart, trachea Separated from the other two cavities by the diaphragm Abdominal cavity = contains stomach, liver, intestines, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen Pelvic cavity = contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum Abdominal and pelvic cavities aren’t actually separated by anything, so they are usually referred to as the abdomoinopelvic cavity
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Abdominopelvic Regions
Abdominopelivic region can be separated into four quadrants or nine regions The nine regions are: Umbilical region = center region, around navel Epigastric region = superior to umbilical region Hypogastric region = inferior to the umbilical region Right and left iliac regions = lateral to hypogastric region Right and left lumbar regions = lateral to the umbilical region Right and left hypochondriac regions = lateral to the epigastric region
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Abdominopelvic Regions
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Other Body Cavities Oral and digestive cavities = mouth and digestive organs leading to the anus, which opens to the exterior Nasal cavity = within and posterior to the nose, part of the respiratory system Orbital cavities = contain the eyes Middle ear cavities = medial to the ear drums, contain our body’s three smallest bones
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