1. Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

2. Psychosocial Stages During Infancy and Toddlerhood
Erikson’s Stage
Needed from Caregivers
Basic trust vs. mistrust (first year)
Responsiveness
Sympathetic, loving balance of care
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (second year)
Suitable guidance and reasonable choices
Reasonable expectations for impulse control

3. First Appearance of Basic Emotions
Happiness
Smile: from birth
Social smile: 6–10 weeks
Laugh: 3–4 months
Anger and sadness
General distress: from birth
Anger: 4–6 months
Sadness: response to disrupted caregiver–infant communication
Fear
First fears: second half of first year
Stranger anxiety: most frequent expression of fear

4. Responding to Emotions of Others
Matching feeling tone of caregiver
Sensitivity to structure and timing of face-to-face interactions: 3–4 months
Social referencing: 8–10 months
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5. Social Referencing
Reliance on a trusted person’s emotional reactions to appraise an uncertain situation
Used by caregivers to teach children how to react to everyday events
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6. Self-Conscious Emotions
Appear between ages 1½ and 3 years:
Shame
Embarrassment
Guilt
Pride
Envy
Require
awareness of self as separate and unique
adult instruction in when to feel emotions
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7. Emotional Self-Regulation
Adjusting one’s own state of emotional intensity
Requires effortful control
Improves over first year, with brain development
Caregivers
contribute to child’s self-regulation style
teach socially approved ways of expressing feelings
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8. Structure of Temperament
Thomas and Chess
Structure of Temperament
Easy: 40%
Difficult: 10%
Slow-to-warm-up: 15%
Unclassified: 35%
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9. Structure of Temperament
Rothbart
Structure of Temperament
Reactivity: quickness and intensity of
emotional arousal
attention
motor activity
Self-regulation: strategies that modify reactivity
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10. Biological Basis of Inhibited Temperament
Neurobiological correlates of shyness and sociability:
heart rate
saliva concentration of cortisol
pupil dilation, blood pressure, skin surface temperature
Persistence of temperamental style is influenced by child-rearing practices

11. Stability of Temperament
Stability is
low in infancy and toddlerhood
moderate from preschool years on
Temperament develops with age, becoming more stable after age 3 years
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12. Heredity and Environment in Temperament Environmental influences
Genetic influences
Responsible for about half of individual differences
Vary with trait and age of individuals studied
Environmental influences
Nutrition
Quality of caregiving
Cultural variations
Gender stereotyping
Role of siblings

13. Goodness-of-Fit
Interaction between temperament and child-rearing style
Effective child rearing: good fit with child’s temperament
Role of cultural context
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14. Shyness and Adjustment in China
Figure 6.1 Changes over time in correlations between shyness and adjustment among Chinese fourth graders
Figure 6.1
(Adapted from Chen et al., 2005.)

15. Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment
Preattachment
Attachment-in-the- making phase
Clear-cut attachment phase
separation anxiety
Reciprocal relationship with caregiver
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16. Measuring Attachment Security
Secure: 60%
Avoidant: 15%
Resistant: 10%
Disorganized/ disoriented: 15%
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17. Cultural Variations in Attachment Security
Figure 6.2 A cross-cultural comparison of infants’ reactions in the Strange Situation
Figure 6.2
(Adapted from van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988; van Ijzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008.)

18. Factors That Affect Attachment Security
Early availability of consistent caregiver
Quality of caregiving:
sensitive caregiving
interactional synchrony in Western cultures
Infant characteristics
Family circumstances
Parents’ internal working models

19. Multiple Attachments Fathers Siblings Grandparents
Professional caregivers
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20. Role of Paternal Warmth
Often expressed through play
Promoted by
time spent in physical proximity to babies
intimacy and cooperation between parents
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21. Siblings and Attachment
Majority of children have siblings
Arrival of new baby can be stressful for older siblings
Siblings typically develop rich emotional relationship
Certain temperamental traits (high emotional reactivity) increase likelihood of sibling conflict

22. Attachment and Later Development
Secure attachment is related to later cognitive, emotional, social competence
Continuity of caregiving promotes favorable development
© michaeljung/Fotolia

23. Self-Development From birth Self-awareness
Aided by capacity for intermodal perception
Self-recognition
Emerges end of second year
Promoted by acting on environment and noting effects
Empathy
Ability to “feel with” another person
Aided by self-awareness and advancing cognitive, language, and social skills

24. Nso and Greek Toddlers’ Self-Recognition and Compliance
Figure 6.4 Self-recognition and compliance among Nso and Greek toddlers
Figure 6.4
(Adapted from Keller et al., 2004.)

25. Categorical Self
Classifying self and others into social categories on basis of
age
physical characteristics
goodness vs. badness
Used to organize behavior, including gender-typed behavior
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26. Self-Control Effortful control is the capacity to Depends on
inhibit impulses
manage negative emotions
behave in socially acceptable ways
Depends on
awareness of self as separate, autonomous being
confidence in directing own actions
memory for caregiver’s directives

27. Compliance Emerges between 12 and 18 months
Awareness of caregivers’ wishes and expectations
Ability to obey simple requests and commands
Leads to first consciencelike verbalizations
Delay of gratification: between ages 1½ and 3 years
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28. Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control
Respond with sensitivity and support.
Give advance notice of change in activities.
Offer many prompts and reminders.
Reinforce self-controlled behavior.
Encourage sustained attention.
Support language development.
Increase rules gradually.

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