1. Introduction to research methodologyBy
Etienne Nsereko
Septemebre,2008

2. Unit one: some definitions of research
There is no one totally accurate definition of research
It may sometimes be defined as a process, a means, or an end to a means itself.
There is however some agreement that research uses systematic data collection and interpretation of such data to solve problems, answer questions , develop products or improve existing products:

3. Unit one: some definitions of research
Considering the following definitions of research :
The systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. An endeavor to discover new or to collate old facts by the study of a subject or by course of critical investigation (Readers Digest oxford complete Worrdfinder 1993:1306)

4. Unit one: some definitions of research
An attempt to increase the sum of what is known , usually referred to as a body of knowledge, by the discovery of new facts or relationship through a process of systematic scientific inquiry, the research process (Macleod-clark& Clark &Hockey 1989:4)
Diligent systematic inquiry to validate and refine old knowledge and generate new knowledge (Burns&Grove 1993:16

5. Note the following in the definition
Research increases knowledge
There is a method of research
Research is systematic
Research is a process
Research is a scientific process

6. Why nursing research and what is nursing research ?
Research conducted by nurses, and or studies that have relevance to clients and patients care will qualify to be nursing research.

7. True nursing research researches are those that are conducted for the following reasons
As clinicians: to ensure that our patients and clients are receiving the best possible care
As managers: to demonstrate that our services are cost effective and efficient , or to find ways of making such services to be cost effective and efficient
As educators: to ensure that we are educating the next generation of health professionals properly

8. Phases and steps of research process
Conceptualization
Implementation
dissemination

9. Conceptualization Identify the problem
Determine the purpose of your study
Search and review the literature relating to your question
Develop a framework
Define and refine the research question
Formulate a research hypothesis (es)
Select a research methods and determine the design of your study
Consider possible ways to analyze the data

10. implementation Conduct a pilot study Collect data Analyze the data
Interpret the results

11. dissemination
Communicate the research findings (research report, publishing research findings

12. Unit 2:Research problem
A research problem is a problem of some sort that will like to research . It can be stated as a question or questions
A research problem can also be defined as a question that need an ensure through a rigorous process of inquiry and observation;
Or a situation in a need of a solution , improvement , or an alteration requiring a process of systematic observation and judgment

13. Examples of started research problems
Does variation in the angle of holding the syringe during the administration of IM injection result in different amount of injection site bleeding?
What factors are associated with non-adherence to treatment among diabetic patients?

14. Appropriateness of research problem
Significance of the study
Researchability of the problem
Feasibility of the study

15. Unit 3: research purpose
If you are going to conduct a study , it might be pertinent to ask yourself about the purpose
Are you conducting this study :
To identify………?
To describe……..?
To explain………?
To predict… ?
To evaluate…….?
To develop……..?
To compare…….?
To investigate….?
To demonstrate..?

16. Evaluation of research question
Feasibility:
(Possible to collect data to be able to answer the question. This includes consideration of time, money , space , resources )
Clarity:
(Most people will agree as to what the key terms sin the question mean)
Significance :
Why is it important to answer this question? Will the answer contribute important knowledge about human condition , improve practice , or of any help to human beings? Can be used in decision making or programme planning ?
Ethicality :
Will not involve physical or psycological harm or damage to human beings or to the natural or social environment which they are part

17. Unit 4: Relationship , variables & hypotheses
Independent variable:
Variables that the investigator chooses to study in order to assess their possible effect on one more other variables. A variable that influences other variable
Dependant variable:
Variable that the independent variable affects
Students in the nursing department more stressed than the students in social work department

18. hypotheses
This is a statement of prediction regarding the possible outcome of a study .
(or an anticipated response to a research question)
Example:
student in the nursing department are more stressed than the students in the social work department
independent and dependant variable have to be clearly stated .

19. Unit 5: Literature review
Familiar terms :
Concept
Construct
Proposition
Theory
Model
Framework
Paradigm
metaparadigm

20. theory
The word theory derives from the Greek “theoria”, which means vision .
Theories are conceptual inventions of reality that are used to describe , explain , predict, or understand phenomenon of concern.
A “good” theory then , provides a useful vision or perspective of reality .

21. theory
A good theory expand our vision and guide our thinking, our practice, and our research. (Virginia' nursing theory)

22. How is theory related to the research process
A theory , conceptual model (paradigm), theoretical framework, or model serves to provide parameters for the study , guides data collection, and provides a perspective for interpreting the data, enabling the scientist to structure the facts into an orderly system.

23. The language of a theory
Concept
Concepts are linguistic labels that we assign to objects or events. Concepts are the building blocks of theories and vary in the level of abstraction.
Example of highly abstract concept: stress, pain, wellness)
Less abstract or more concrete concepts are like,
blood loss, temperature elevation , weight and height

24. concepts Concepts may have a theoretical or operational definition
In a theoretical definition , the concept is defined in relation to other concepts
the operational definition links the concepts to the real world and identifies empirical referents indicators) of the concept that permit observation and measurement .

25. concepts
Regardless of the level of abstraction , the researcher needs to provide both theoretical and operational definitions of the concepts to link the theoretical perspective with the research aims

26. Construct& proposition
Constructs are group of concepts that are directly or indirectly observable
Propositions describe the relationship of two or more concepts
As you can see from the definitions, theory development begins with the identification and description of concepts and constructs and proceeds to formulate propositions that describe the nature of the relationships between these concepts

27. Conceptual model and paradigm
A conceptual model refers to concepts that provide a structure or pattern for organizing phenomena of interest in practice or research. kuhn(1970), a philosopher of science , popularized the term paradigm and used it to mean a model or world view about the major phenomenon of a concern to a discipline.
Conceptual models or paradigms serve as heuristic devices or springboards for developing theories

28. theory
What is a theory?
It is a viewpoints or ways of perceiving reality. Kerlinger(1973) provides a formal definition of theory:" it is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena” .

29. The Holarchy of Contemporary Nursing Knowledge: Metaparadigm of Nursing
Human beings
Environment
Health
Nursing

30. Purpose of literature search
To determine what is already known about the topic to be studied
To obtain clues to the methodology and instruments to be used
To refine certain parts of the study
to identify information that may compare with new findings
to inform or support the study

31. What to look for when searching
Facts, statistics and research findings
Theory or interpretations
Methods and procedures
Opinions, believes or point of view

32. Research steps and literature search
Problem identification
Is it a problem?
Is it already researched?
What were the methods used?
What were the findings?
Plan the research
What pitfall?
How do I go about doing this study?
Design, Data collection and analysis
Support for using a type of design
Correct data analysis method
Conclusions and recommendations
Compare with previous findings
Identify audience for dissemination
Where to publish

33. Unit 6: locating a conceptual/theoretical framework
A theory or a theoretical framework could be described as a well developed coherent explanation for an event or a phenomenon
(ex: Orem self care theory, Kolb's learning cycle, health belief model)
Reasons for specifying a conceptual or theoretical framework:
To locate their research , ei., to signal where the research is coming from
To test a theory , ie.,to assess the validity

34. Example of the use of a conceptual framework
Research purpose:
To investigate the learning experience of nursing students in the new curriculum at the KHI nursing school
Theory (Kolb's theory)

35. Unit 7: methodology
The methods used by the researcher to obtain subjects, collects the data , analyze the data and interpret the results.
These include:
The research design
Sampling strategy
Instrumentation
Procedure for data collection
Data analysis techniques
Interpretation of the results

36. 2 broad approaches to conducting researches.
Quantitative
Qualitative research

37. Quantitative /qualitative research
Reality is objective and singular
Researcher is independent from that being researched
Deductive process
Reality is subjective and multiple
Researcher interacts with that being researched
Inductive process

38. Research design
This can be defined as overall plan for gathering data in a research study . It allows for logical steps to be taken in order to enable the researcher answer the research question .

39. Research design
Before choosing a research design , it may be helpful to ask yourself the following questions:
What is the purpose of this study?
What data do I want? Qualitative or quantitative ?
What instrument will I use to collect this data?
Who will supply this data , or where can I get this data from?
How will this data (be used to ) answer the research question ? Are you comparing , or just making a simple description?

40. Quantitative research

41. Experiments and quasi-experiments and non-experiments research
Other types of research

42. Experiments and quasi-experiments
Characteristics of true experiments research:
Manipulation
Control
Randomization

43. Characteristics of quasi-experiment research
Look very much with experiment research design however the missing ingredient is always either the randomization or control group component (or both)

44. Non experimental research
Descriptive
To obtain complete and accurate information about a phenomenon through observation, description and classification
Type of the question:
How prevalent is the phenomenon?
What are the characteristics?
What is the process by which the phenomenon is experienced?

45. Non experimental research
Exploratory
Purpose: to explore the dimensions of a phenomenon, the manner in which it is manifested and the other factors with which it is related( it provides more insight about the nature of a phenomenon)
Type of the question:
What is the nature of the phenomenon?
What factors are related to the phenomenon?

46. Non experimental research
Explanatory
Purpose: to explain a phenomenon and to answer the question ‘why’ it occurs.
Question: what is the underlying cause?
What does the occurrence of the phenomenon mean?

47. Unit 8:population and sample
Is the entire aggregation of cases that meets a designated set of criteria.
Target population:
Is the entire specified aggregate of cases about which the researcher would like to make generalizations

48. Samples and sampling
Sampling refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population.
In sampling terminology , the units that make up the samples and population are usually referred to as elements. the element is the most basic unit about which information is collected.

49. Samples and sampling
The overriding consideration in assessing a sample is its representativeness.
A representative sample is one whose key characteristics closely approximate those of the population.

50. Sampling plan