1. Chapter 8 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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2. Erikson’s Theory: Initiative versus Guilt
New sense of purposefulness
Eagerness to try new tasks, join activities
Play permits trying out new skills
Strides in conscience development
Guilt
Overly strict superego, or conscience, causing too much guilt
Related to parental
threats
criticism
punishment
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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3. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Self-Understanding
Emerging language skills enable children to discuss inner mental states
Self-awareness supports development of self-concept
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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4. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Self-Concept
Consists largely of
observable characteristics (appearance, possessions, behavior)
typical emotions and attitudes (“I like/ don’t like …”)
Does not yet reference personality traits (“I’m shy”)
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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5. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Self-Esteem
Self-judgments and associated feelings
Influences:
Emotional experiences
Future behavior
Long-term psychological adjustment
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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6. Gains in Emotional Competence
Improvements in
emotional understanding
emotional self-regulation
Increase in self-conscious emotions (shame, guilt) and empathy
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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7. Emotional Understanding
Preschoolers correctly judge
causes of emotions
consequences of emotions
behavioral signs of emotions
Parents, siblings, peers, and make-believe play contribute to understanding
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

8. Emotional Self-Regulation
By age 3–4, aware of strategies for adjusting emotional arousal
Affected by
temperament: effortful control
warm parents who use verbal guidance
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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9. Self-Conscious Emotions
Examples:
Shame
Embarrassment
Guilt
Pride
Depend on adult feedback
Vary across cultures
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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10. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Empathy and Sympathy
Sympathy Feeling concern or sorrow for another’s plight
Empathy Feeling same or similar emotions as another person
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

11. Individual Differences in Empathy
Factors that encourage empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior:
Temperament:
sociable
assertive
good at emotional self-regulation
Parenting: warm, sensitive parents who
show empathic concern
encourage emotional expressiveness
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

12. Peer Sociability in Play
Nonsocial activity
Unoccupied, onlooker behavior
Solitary play
Parallel play
Plays near other children with similar materials
Does not try to influence them
Associative play
Engages in separate activities
Exchanges toys and comments
Cooperative play
Orients with peers toward a common play goal
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

13. Cognitive Play Categories
Functional play
(0–2 years)
Simple, repetitive motor movements, with or without objects
Constructive play
(3–6 years)
Creating or constructing something
Make-believe play (2–6 years)
Acting out everyday and imaginative roles
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

14. Cultural Variations in Play
Collectivist cultures
stress group harmony
encourage group cooperation
Cultures vary in beliefs about the importance of play
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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15. Early Childhood Friendships
Someone who “likes you,” plays with you, shares toys
Friendships change frequently
Benefits of friendships:
social support: cooperation and emotional expressiveness
favorable school adjustment
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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16. Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations
Indirect
Secure attachment
Emotionally expressive, sensitive communication
Direct
Arranging informal peer activities
Guidance on how to act toward others
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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17. Perspectives on Moral Development
Psychoanalytic
Freud: superego and guilt
New evidence: induction, empathy-based guilt
Social learning
Modeling moral behavior
Punishment
Cognitive-developmental
Children as active thinkers about social rules
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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18. Punishment in Early Childhood
Frequent harsh punishment has negative side effects.
Alternatives to harsh punishment
Time out
Withdrawing privileges
Positive discipline
Parents can increase effectiveness of punishment
Consistency
Warm parent–child relationship
Explanations
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

19. Prevalence of Corporal Punishment by Children’s Age
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 8.1 Prevalence of corporal punishment by children’s age
Figure 8.1
(From M. A. Straus & J. H. Stewart, 1999, “Corporal Punishment by American Parents: National Data on Prevalence, Chronicity, Severity, and Duration, in Relation to Child and Family Characteristics,” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, p. 59. Adapted with kind permission from Springer Science+Business Media and Murray A. Straus.)
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20. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Positive Discipline
Use transgressions as opportunities to teach.
Reduce opportunities for misbehavior.
Provide reasons for rules.
Have children participate in family duties and routines.
Try compromising and problem solving.
Encourage mature behavior.
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

21. Moral Imperatives, Social Conventions, and Personal Choice
Actions that protect people’s rights and welfare
Social conventions
Customs determined solely by social consensus
Matters of personal choice
Do not violate rights
Up to the individual
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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22. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Types of Aggression
Proactive (instrumental):
meant to help the child get something he or she wants
self-initiated
Reactive (hostile):
meant to hurt someone
defensive response to provocation
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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23. Types of Hostile Aggression
How the Harm Is Caused
Physical
Physical injury
Verbal
Threats of physical aggression
Name-calling
Teasing
Relational
Social exclusion
Malicious gossip
Friendship manipulation
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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24. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Sources of Aggression
Individual differences:
gender
temperament
Family:
harsh, inconsistent discipline
cycles of such discipline, whining/giving in
Media violence
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

25. Risks of Media Violence
Increases
hostile thoughts and emotions
aggressive behavior
Creates short-term and long-term behavior problems
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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26. Helping Children Control Aggression
Improving parenting: Incredible Years approach
Encouraging children to attend to non-hostile social cues
Promoting perspective taking
Teaching conflict-resolution skills
Limiting exposure to media violence and home stressors
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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27. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Gender Stereotypes
Strengthen and operate as blanket rules in early childhood
Preschoolers associate toys, clothing, household items, occupations, behavior, and more with gender
Young children’s rigid gender stereotypes are a joint product of
gender stereotyping in the environment
cognitive limitations
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

28. Influences on Gender Typing
Genetic:
evolutionary adaptiveness
hormones
Environmental:
family
teachers
peers
broader social environment
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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29. Theories of Gender Identity
Social learning
Gender-typed behavior leads to gender identity
Cognitive-developmental
Self-perceptions (gender constancy) precede gender-typed behavior
Gender schema
Combines social learning and cognitive-developmental features
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

30. Reducing Gender Stereotyping
Delay exposure to stereotyped messages.
Limit traditional gender roles.
Provide nontraditional models.
Encourage flexible beliefs.
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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31. Outcomes of Child-Rearing Styles
Authoritative
self-control, moral maturity, high self-esteem
Authoritarian
anxiety, unhappiness, low self-esteem, anger, defiance
Permissive
impulsivity, poor school achievement
Uninvolved
depression, anger, poor school achievement
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

32. Characteristics of Child-Rearing Styles
Acceptance
Involvement
Control
Autonomy
Authoritative
high
adaptive
appropriate
Authoritarian
low
Permissive
too low or too high
Uninvolved
indifferent
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

33. Cultural Variations in Child-Rearing
Chinese
Shame, withholding praise in context of reasoning and affection
Hispanic/Asian Pacific Islander/Caribbean
Firm respect for parental authority
High parental warmth
Low-SES African-American
Strictness; immediate obedience
Warmth and reasoning
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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34. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Child Maltreatment
Physical abuse
Assaults resulting in physical injury
Sexual abuse
Fondling, intercourse, pornography, and other forms
Neglect
Failing to meet children’s basic needs
Emotional abuse
Social isolation, unreasonable demands, humiliation, intimidation, and other forms
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

35. Factors Related to Child Maltreatment
Parent characteristics
Child characteristics
Family characteristics
Community
Culture
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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36. Consequences of Child Maltreatment
Emotional:
poor emotional self-regulation
impaired empathy/sympathy
depression
Adjustment:
substance abuse
violent crime
Learning:
impaired working memory and executive function
low academic motivation
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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37. Preventing Child Maltreatment
Intervening with high-risk parents
Social supports for families:
Parents Anonymous
home visitation—Healthy Families America
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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38. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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