1. Module 20: Learning by Observation
Learning by observing and imitating others =
Learning by modeling
Learning without direct experiences
Don’t we sometimes learn without direct experience?

2. Physiological basis of observational Learning
Observational learning is a function of mirror neurons (2000, 2002)
Neurons in the frontal lobe that are activated when we perform certain actions OR when we observe someone else performing them
Mirror neurons also help develop empathy (theory of mind)
Seeing a loved one’s physical or emotional pain
Watch video:
Recently neuroscientists have discovered mirror neurons that provide a neural bases for observational learning:
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
A mirror neuron is a premotor[1] neuron which fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another (especially conspecific) animal. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of another animal, as though the observer were itself acting. These neurons have been directly observed in primates, and are believed to exist in humans and in some birds. In humans, brain activity consistent with mirror neurons has been found in the premotor cortex and the inferior parietal cortex.
Some scientists consider mirror neurons one of the most important findings of neuroscience in the last decade. Among them is V.S. Ramachandran[2], who believes they might be very important in imitation and language acquisition. However, despite the popularity of this field, to date no plausible neural or computational models have been put forward to describe how mirror neuron activity supports cognitive functions such as imitation.[3]
Furthermore, it is generally accepted that no single neurons can be responsible for the phenomenon. Rather, a whole network of neurons (neuronal assembly) is activated when an action is observed.
Neuronal basis for perceiving other’s emotions, and sensations, intentions
Development of empathy
Language development

3. Albert Bandura’s work with observational learning (1925- )
First set of experiments with children on social (observational) learning (Movie)
Observing aggression lowers inhibition
Observing aggression leads to an imitation of aggression
We observe behavior AND its consequences (rewards and punishments)
We are especially likely to imitate the behavior of “relevant” models
Those who are similar
Those who are successful or admirable
Good Models:
Attractive
High Status
Similar to selves
Modeling can help organisms learn:
Which events are important
Which stimuli signal events
Which responses produce positive or negative consequences

4. Types of observational learning
Positive observational learning: learning of prosocial behaviors
Learning of morality and conscientious behavior
Negative observational learning: learning of antisocial behaviors
Intergenerational transmission of violence
Media and gender roles
Media and aggression  There is a CAUSAL relation between exposure to media violence and being violent or accepting violence.

5. Media and violence Very high exposure to media models
9 years of your life before age 75
6 of 10 TV programs feature violence
74% of violence goes unpunished
58% does not show the victim’s pain
50% documented “justification”
50% had an attractive perpetrator
By the age of 12, children watch 8,000 murders and 100,000 acts of assorted violence
We become desensitized to seeing violence
We have less sympathy for the victims of violence (rape and abuse)
We have less moral reaction against the perpetrators

6. Imitation in infants Newborn imitation
For example, infants will imitate live models, as well as actions that they have seen on television
Infants who watch a televised model on one day will reproduce the model’s behavior 24 hours later (Meltzoff, 1988)
What might be an educational implication?

7. Classical Conditioning
Review
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Associative learning
Learning that CS signals pending US
Learning that a behavior and its consequences go together
What kind of behavior?
Respondent behavior: occurs automatically
Operant behavior: behavior operates on the environment and produces consequences
Consequ-ences of conditioning
Behavior is repeated IF CS is given, in anticipation of the US
Frequency of a behavior is changed in anticipation of its consequence
What is the process of acquisition?
A CS is associated with an US to produce CR.
Behavior is shaped by reinforcers (primary & secondary) and punishers: reinforcement strengthens the behavior, punishment weakens it.
What may happen after acquisition?
Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.

8. Learning: summary Learning by Observation Operant Conditioning
Skinner’s Experiments
Extending Skinner’s Understanding
Skinner’s Legacy
Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov’s Legacy
Learning by Observation
Bandura’s Experiments
Applications of Observational Learning