2. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learning Unit 6

3. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical conditioning activity Close your eyes. It is a hot summer day and you are at the beach. The sun is scorching. You are getting hotter and hotter and can’t stand it any longer. You run toward the ocean and splash in the water. You swim out to deeper water and enjoy cooling off after being in the sun.

4. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learning Learning - The process by which practice or experience results in a relatively permanent change in behavior. Conditioning – A simple form of learning in which a specific pattern of behaviors is learned in the presence of well-defined stimuli.

5. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s dog

6. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning) - Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Russian physiologist who was studying digestive processes accidentally discovered classical conditioning. His experiments on salivation in dogs turned into research on learning.

7. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Elements of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) - A stimulus that automatically (or naturally) causes a specific response in an organism. An example of a US would be food. Unconditioned response (UR) - The response caused by a US. The UR is automatic and unlearned. An example of a UR is salivation in response to food.

8. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Elements of Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) - A formerly neutral stimulus that is paired with a US and eventually causes the desired response all by itself. An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s studies. Conditioned response (CR) - The learned response to the CS. An example is salivation in response to the bell. Classical Conditioning video clip 

9. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Procedure Before Conditioning Food (US) Salivation (UR) Bell (NS) No Response

10. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Procedure During Conditioning Bell (CS) Food (US) Salivation (UR)

11. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Procedure After Conditioning Bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

12. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning In Humans Many phobias are the result of classical conditioning. The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically conditioned phobia. Desensitization therapy: A technique that uses classical conditioning to treat phobias. Person learns to relax in presence of stimulus that used to be upsetting.

13. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Little Albert experiment The Little Albert experiment was a famous psychology experiment conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Raynor. Watson was able to show that emotional responses could be conditioned, or learned. Pavlov and Watson’s behavioral work lead to B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning experiments ten years later. http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=9hBfnXACsOI http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=9hBfnXACsOI

14. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization – after conditioning, other stimuli similar to the CS may also trigger a response. Extinction – when the US stops following the CS, conditioning will fade away, or extinguish. Spontaneous recovery – the return of a learned response after apparent extinction. Stimulus discrimination – the ability to respond differently to various stimuli. Taste aversion - Learned association between the taste of a certain food and a feeling of nausea or revulsion.

15. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning

16. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning Operant (or instrumental) Conditioning - Learning in which an organism’s behavior is followed by a reward or punishment. Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment. Classical conditioning is concerned with involuntary behavior, whereas operant conditioning deals with voluntary behavior. Operant behavior – behavior that is learned to gain a reward or avoid punishment.

17. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Elements of Operant Conditioning Operant response – a response operates on the environment to produce specific consequences. Consequence: Reinforcer - A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again (Increases behavior). Punisher - A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again (Decreases behavior). Law of Effect – (Thorndike) behavior that brings a satisfying effect (reinforcement) is likely to be performed again. Behavior that brings a negative effect (punishment) would likely be suppressed. (Called by some the “principle of reinforcement”)

18. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Clips of Operant Conditioning

19. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcer (+) Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again. Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example. Negative reinforcer (-) Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again. Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example.

20. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Punishment The goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence of a behavior. It adds something unpleasant to weaken behavior. Effective punishment: Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior. Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough. Should be certain, occurring every time the behavior does. Should be consistent.

21. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Punishment Punishment: Is not as effective as reinforcement. Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior. Causes upset that can impede learning. May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable.

22. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning techniques work best with behaviors that would typically occur in a specific situation, or naturally for a given subject. Superstitious behavior: Tendency to repeat behaviors that are followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they are not related. For example, a particular pair of socks might become “lucky” if something good happened when you wore them.

23. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learned Helplessness Failure to try to avoid or escape from an unpleasant stimulus because in the past it was unavoidable. Subjects that acquired learned helplessness showed signs similar to depression in humans

24. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback Biofeedback - is an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate and blood pressure. Neurofeedback – a biofeedback technique that monitors brain waves using an EEG to teach people to gain voluntary control over their brain wave activity.

25. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Clips of Operant Conditioning

26. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Clips of Operant Conditioning

27. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning Response Acquisition – the “building phase” of conditioning during which the strength of desired response increases. Classical conditioning Naturally occurring responses are attached to conditioned stimulus by pairing that stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. Spacing of trials effects rate of training. If trials are spaced too close together or too far apart, it may take many trials to get the response strength. If trials are spaced evenly, then it will take less training to get desired effect. Operant conditioning Learning process in which desired responses are followed by reinforcers. Getting to desired responses in operant conditioning is more difficult than in classical conditioning. Shaping - reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior, can speed up acquisition.

28. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Classical conditioning Extinction occurs when the US and CS are no longer paired, eliminating the CR. Spontaneous recovery occurs when the CR temporarily returns without additional training. Operant conditioning Extinction occurs when reinforcement is stopped, eliminating the conditioned behavior. Spontaneous recovery occurs when behavior temporarily returns without additional training.

29. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Generalization and Discrimination Classical conditioning Stimulus generalization Organism learns to respond to other stimuli that is similar to the CS. Stimulus discrimination Organism learns to respond only to specific stimuli and not just anything “like” the CS. Operant conditioning Response generalization Stimulus generates similar responses. Response discrimination Only specific responses are reinforced in the presence of specific stimuli ** There is no “response generalization” or “response discrimination” in classical conditioning.

30. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall New Learning Based on Original Learning Higher-Order Conditioning in Classical Conditioning – conditioning based on previous learning; the conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned stimulus for further training. Desensitization is based on this principle.

31. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall New Learning Based on Original Learning Secondary reinforcers in operant conditioning : Primary reinforcers: Are intrinsically rewarding Examples are food, water, and sex Secondary reinforcers: Acquire rewarding properties by being associated with primary reinforcers. Prior learning or conditioning is required before they will function as reinforcers. Provide ability to obtain primary reinforcer. Example would be money.

32. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Contingencies in Classical Conditioning Contingency – a reliable “if-then” relationship between two events such as a CS and a US. The CS and US must occur close together in time for classical conditioning to occur.

33. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Contingencies in Operant Conditioning Behaviors that are reinforced intermittently are more resistant to extinction. Most behavior is reinforced with some type of intermittent schedule.

34. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement – the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will be delivered. Interval schedules Reinforcement depends on the passing of TIME. (inTerval = Time) Fixed-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks Variable-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable amount of time has passed An example would be pop quizzes

35. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules Reinforcement depends on the NUMBER OF RESPONSES made. (Ratio = Responses) Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors. For example, being paid on a piecework basis. Variable-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors. An example would be playing slot machines.

36. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement

37. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Comparing Classical And Operant Conditioning

38. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cognitive Learning Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable. Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory. Cognitive psychologists challenge the idea that all human learning comes from conditioning.

39. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps Latent learning (learning that is stored internally) is learning that is not apparent because it is not yet demonstrated. A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental image.

40. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Insight and Learning Sets Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation come together. (An “Aha!” moment) Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to learn.”

41. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learning by Observing Social learning theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people. (Social cognitive theory – Albert Bandura) Observational (or vicarious) learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior. Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others.

42. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans Nonhumans are capable of classical and operant conditioning. Nonhumans are also capable of latent learning. Research has also demonstrated that animals are capable of observational learning.