English 103: Critical Thinking.

English 103: Critical Thinking

Table of Contents 1. Hooks (p. 3-6) 2. Conclusions (p. 7- 8)
3. Style and Revision (p. 9-23) 4. Propositions and Arguments (p ) 5. Counter-Argument (p ) 6. Ethos, Pathos, and Logos (p ) 7. Logical Fallacies (p ) 8. Syllogisms (p. 66) 9. Induction and Deduction (p ) 10. Classical and Modern Rhetoric (p ) 11. Rhetorical Devices (p )

Hooks DEFINITION A HOOK is the opening of almost anything you write. You want to provide a juicy idea that will make your reader want to continue reading.

Types of Hooks Interesting or shocking Fact
2. Interesting or shocking Idea 3. Interesting or shocking Statistic 4. Interesting or shocking Quote 5. A Rhetorical Question 6. A Personal Narrative (or personal experience) 7. In Medias Res or “in the middle of things”

Personal Annecdote “It is Christmas Eve in the year of…1969. Three hundred Chicanos have gathered in front of St. Basil’s Roman Catholic Church. Three hundred brown-eyed children of the sun have come to drive the money-changers out of the richest temple in Los Angeles”—beginning of Oscar Zeta Acosta’s The Revolt of the Cockroach People

Interesting Fact “I’ve been around and seen the Taj Mahal and the Grand Canyon and Marilyn Monroe’s footprints outside Grauman’s Chinese Theater, but I’ve never seen my mother wash her own hair.”—the opening of “Hair” by Marcia Aldrich

Conclusions

Provide a Final Reflection
Select one of these Modes Additional Analysis Speculate about the Future Close with a Quotation that offers deeper insight Close with a Story or a Question Call Your Readers to Action

Style GOOD STYLE can be achieved by varying diction, varying sentence structure, varying word choice, varying lengths of sentences, and thru the use of figurative language or figurative devices

8 Keys to Good Style 1. Make your Subjects Clear
2. Attach verbs to Subjects who perform crucial actions 3. Use specific nouns, not abstract ones 4. Use specific verbs, not abstract ones 5. Meaning becomes Clearer as Verbs become more Specific 6. Avoid unnecessary Passive Voice

8 Keys to Good Style 7. Use Metadiscourse to introduce, transition, and conclude Introduce and Conclude: we will “explain,” “show,” “argue,” “claim,” “deny,” “suggest,” “expand,” etc. Transitioning: “therefore,” “hence,” or “as a result” 8. In a sentence, progress from known information to new claims and information Source: Style: Toward Clarity and Grace

Revising a Body Paragraph
1. Does your Topic Sentence make a clear Argument? 2. Does your paragraph support that claim and develop the concept? 3. Have you anticipated objections? 4. Clarify your Word Choice and the purpose of Each Sentence 5. Delete or Omit any Ideas that seem outside the discussion

Adios, Strunk and White Freighting
Offers a way to flow by visualizing a simple sentence as flatbed freight cars, each one capable of having more similar material piled vertically on top of it 1. Uncle Bob chewed a red apple.

Freighting Loading Subjects
2. Uncle Bob, Aunt Lynn, and my cousins chewed a red apple. Loading Verbs 3. Uncle Bob, Aunt Lynn, and my cousins chopped, chewed, and pulverized the red apple.

Freighting Loading Objects
4. Uncle Bob, Aunt Lynn, and my cousins chopped, chewed, and utterly pulverized the red, hard, juicy, candied apple and the mud-brown, crumbling cookies, scatter-shot with chocolate chips.

Freighting Loading Introductory Ideas
5. While opening the door, tiptoeing across the threshold, and wondering if his life had any meaning, Uncle Bob chewed the red apple. Bolting 6. You can combine freight trains with coordinate, subordinate conjunctions, like, “although,” “but,” “besides,” “because,” and “since,” or semi-colons (;)

Adios, Strunk and White by Hoffman
Telescoping This is another flow technique that stresses close observation by the writer. Unlike freighting, a sentence envisioned as vertical stacks of material piled upon freight cars, the Telescoping sentence keeps extending, moving closer and closer upon ideas in the previous clause Three Parts to Telescoping: Zooming, Panning, and Closure

Telescoping Zooming The comma replacing the period works like a telephoto lens, signaling an upcoming zoom, a new clause generated by the material in the initial sentence. For example, William Faulkner chewed a red apple, the apple’s skin marked with dark imperfections.

Telescoping Panning You can use a third comma, and fourth, and so on as long as you focus on the detail from the previous clause. Caution: think about balance and conciseness v detail William Faulkner chewed the red apple, the apple’s skin marked with dark imperfections, the imperfections representing that nothing in life is perfect.

Telescoping Closure: Variations to end a single-Telescoped clause
1. Re-order The red apple, the apple’s skin marked with imperfections, the imperfections representing that nothing is perfect, tempted William Faulkner.

Telescoping 2. Use a Restrictive Clause (which or that)
William Faulkner chewed the red apple, the apple’s skin marked with dark imperfections, the imperfections representing that nothing in life is perfect, which was a sentiment Aunt Lynn expressed earlier that day.

Telescoping End with a Coordinate Conjunction and an Independent Clause William Faulkner chewed the red apple, the apple’s skin marked with dark imperfections, the imperfections representing that nothing in life is perfect, yet Aunt Lynn said she found a perfect frozen yogurt.

Propositions and Arguments

Recognizing Arguments
Premise-indicators: Since as indicated by Because the reason is that For for the reason that As may be inferred from Follows from may be derived from As shown by may be deduced from Inasmuch as in view of the fact that *These are more suggestions, than hard and fast rules

Conclusion-indicators: Therefore for these reasons Hence it follows that Thus we may infer So I conclude that Accordingly which shows that In consequence which means that

More Conclusion-indicators: Consequently which entails that Proves that which implies that As a result which allows us to infer that For this reason which points to the conclusion that

Propositions Propositions: the building blocks of every argument. A proposition is something that may be asserted or denied. Propositions make claims about what is or is not true. We use the term proposition to refer to what declarative sentences are typically used to assert For example, “There is life on other planets.”

Alternative Proposition
Alternative Proposition: a hypothetical argument of which one of the two components may be false, or both components may be false For example, “Circuit Courts are useful, or they are not useful.”

Compound Hypothetical Propositions
Compound Hypothetical Propositions: an argument with more than one proposition. Hypothetical or disjunctive arguments are alternative arguments which may or may not be true “Either-or”=disjunctive/alternative proposition “If-then”=hypothetical/conditional proposition For example, “If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him” (Voltaire 1770)

Argument Argument: any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others, which are regarded as providing support or grounds for the truth of that one. No single proposition, however, is an argument by itself. A hypothetical proposition is, also, not an argument

Unstated Propositions
An unstated proposition is where one part of the argument is not provided for us, and we must, then, infer it. Example of Unstated Proposition: “The dreamer rejects the ordinary. Jay invited the ordinary”—Anais Nin, Cities of the Interior, 1959

Counter-Argument

Counter-Argument “If you know the enemy and know yourself you need not fear the result of a hundred battles. If you know yourself but not the enemy for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself you will succumb in every battle.” --Sun Tzu, The Art of War

Counter-Argument DEFINITION:
In a counter-argument (also called a rebuttal), you examine your opponent’s argument, and, if possible, disprove it. If the counter-argument is valid, find a way to incorporate it into your argument PURPOSE: The purpose of a counter-argument is to address a reader’s objections to your argument

Counter-Argument According to Aristotle, your counter-argument can either appear before your argument or after your argument, and before your conclusion I. Introduction I. Introduction II. Argument II. Rebuttal III. Rebuttal III. Argument IV. Conclusion IV. Conclusion

The Counter-Argument Paragraph
I. Introduce Opponent’s Argument II. Quote your Opponent III. Review your Opponent’s Analysis or Reasoning IV. Counter-Argument For example, Introduce your Counter-claim to that Argument Quote or Cite a Source Analyze how the Quote Supports your Argument VII. Conclude the Paragraph with your Argument

Counter-Argument Strategies
Employ any ONE of these strategies: 1. Critique assumptions behind a writer’s premise by exposing unfair ASSUMPTIONS or UNSTATED PREMISES as false 2. Assess the truthfulness of the PREMISES themselves 3. Examine the strength or relevance of the evidence used to support the argument

4. Interrogate the LOGIC of the argument and expose any LOGICAL FALLACIES 5. Stun your readers by proposing a superior ALTERNATIVE ARGUMENT of your own using the same set of evidence 6. Supply additional EVIDENCE that supports an alternative 7. Are there any CONTRADICTIONS?

8. Anticipate the Objections within your essay 9. Refute: Argue against your opponent 10. Accommodate: Incorporate your opponent’s argument into your own 11. Quarantine: Concede your opponent’s argument is valid, but that it is irrelevant to the core of your argument

Ethos, Pathos, and Logos Aristotle

Persuasive Appeals 1. Ethos (Greek for “character”)
Aristotle’s Three Argumentative Appeals: 1. Ethos (Greek for “character”) an appeal to the character of the speaker or a moral or ethical appeal 2. Pathos (Greek for “suffering” or “experience”) an appeal to emotions, like anger, hate, love, patriotism, hope, and revenge 3. Logos (Greek for “embodied thought”) an appeal to reason, facts, statistics, and logic

Ethos Quintilian argues that a speaker must be noble and truthful in order attain “perfect eloquence” An example of ETHOS is how I start my classes by telling you about my B.A. in English and M.A. in Rhetoric and Composition, as well as my emphases in Rhetoric, Composition, Post-colonial and British Literature, and my fourteen years of experience in education

Textual Example of Ethos
There are many forms of ETHOS, in one the speaker establishes their own character: “I would agree with St. Augustine that ‘an unjust law is no law at all’” (from King’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail”). In this example, Dr. King uses a complex appeal that (1) shows he is educated [ETHOS], (2) expresses his moral belief [ETHOS], and (3) provides support from a credible source [LOGOS]

Textual Example of Ethos
In another example of ETHOS, Dr. King appeals to the character of his audience in “Letter from Birmingham Jail”: “But since I feel that you are men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I want to try to answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable terms” (King).

Read Plato’s “Crito” and locate and then analyze any uses of ETHOS
Ethos Exercise Read Plato’s “Crito” and locate and then analyze any uses of ETHOS

Pathos Aristotle regards PATHOS as, perhaps, the most convincing appeal, but, certainly, the most manipulative An example of PATHOS is when you tell me at the end of the semester that I should give you a passing grade in this class—even though your work has been below average—because your girlfriend dumped you, you got jumped, and your house got robbed.

Example of Pathos “The more I read, the more I was led to abhor and detest my enslavers. I could regard them in no other light than a band of successful robbers, who had left their homes, and gone to Africa, and stolen us from our homes, and in a strange land reduced us to slavery,” Frederick Douglass wrote in “Learning to Read and Write.”

Pathos Exercise Read “Learning to Read and Write” by Frederick Douglass and find additional examples of PATHOS.

Logos Aristotle, an empiricist, thought LOGOS was the most effective appeal An example of LOGOS is when I gave you statistical information on what percentages of people learn and receive information in what ways (ala 65% Visual, 30% Auditory, and 5% Kinesthetic) Empiricist--

Textual Example of Logos
In Vicki Hearne’s “What’s Wrong with Animal Rights?” she cites Aristotle on the subject of ‘happiness.’ “In his Ethics, Aristotle wrote, ‘If happiness is activity in accordance with excellence, it is reasonable that it should be in accordance with the highest excellence.’”

Logos Exercise Re-read Peter Singer’s “The Singer Solution for World Poverty” and analyze any uses of LOGOS.

Logical Fallacies “I want everybody to hear loud
and clear that I’m going to be the president of everybody,” George Bush, 2001. Logical Fallacy: broad or sweeping generalization Josh Brolin playing George W. Bush

Logical Fallacies Logical Fallacies, or errors in logical reasoning, are used intentionally and unintentionally In either case, they are effective, unless they are detected by the audience

1. Appeal to Ignorance—Using a lack of evidence as proof
Fallacies of Logos 1. Appeal to Ignorance—Using a lack of evidence as proof “Aliens exist because no one has proved they do not.”

Appeal to Ignorance In “Pirates of the Caribbean,” Royal Navy Guard Mullory commits an appeal to ignorance by arguing that since he has not seen the Black Pearl, it does not exist

Fallacies of Logos 2. False Dilemma/”Either/Or”—Forcing an audience to pick between two bad options by presenting them as the only possibilities

False Dilemma “Would you rather get a bullet to the head or five to the chest and bleed to death?” “Are those my only two options?” Moneyball

Fallacies of Logos 3. Slippery Slope—A fallacy of causality where one argues for a certain conclusion using a series of unlikely events “If you steal candy, you will steal toys, then bikes, then cars, and sooner or later you will wind up on death row.” Or, the DirectTV “Roadside Ditch” ad: "Don't End Up in a Roadside Ditch"

Slippery Slope “When your cable company puts you on hold, you get angry. When you get angry, you blow off steam. When you blow off steam, accidents happen. When accidents happen, you get an eye patch…You wake up in a roadside ditch.”—DIRECTV Ad

Fallacies of Logos 4. Sweeping Generalization—when something true in one circumstance is true in all circumstances

Sweeping Generalization
“You know why Rifkin was a serial killer? Because he was adopted. Just like Son of Sam was adopted. So apparently, adoption leads to serial killing.” –Kramer (Seinfeld)

Sweeping Generalization
“The government of the—the society of ours has changed dramatically. For example, in the old days women used to stay at home” (p. 10) from President George W. Bush’s “Remarks at ‘Focus on Women’s Issues’ Event”

Fallacies of Pathos 1. Ad Populum—A Latin phrase meaning “to the people.” It refers to propaganda and arguments which replace logic with devices calculated to incite anger, hate, or patriotism An example of this type of language are the speeches and writing of Adolph Hitler, like Mein Kampf

Ad Populum In Hitler’s “The Jewish Question,” he puts forth, “if the international fiance-Jewry…should succeed in plunging the nations into a world war yet again, then the outcome will not be the victory of Jewry, but rather the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe.”

Syllogisms A syllogism, which proceeds from the general to the specific, has three parts: A Major Premise A Minor Premise And a Conclusion For example, All people are mortal. (MAJOR PREMISE) Socrates is a person. (MINOR PREMISE) Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (CONCLUSION)

Induction and Deduction
Arguments have two types: Deductive and Inductive Both provide grounds for truth of its conclusion, but they differ in how the premise supports the conclusion

Induction and Deduction
Only a deductive argument involves the claim that its premises provide conclusive grounds for its conclusion. When the claim is warranted, the reasoning in a deductive argument is correct, then it is called a “valid argument” (the others are “invalid”) Validity is defined as “a deductive argument is valid when its premises, if true, do provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion”

Deduction Deductive arguments move from the general to the particular, while inductive arguments move from the particular to the general. Example of Deduction: All humans are mortal Socrates is human Therefore Socrates is mortal

Induction An Inductive argument is one whose conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises only with a probability, this probability being a matter of degree and dependent upon what else may be true Example of Induction: All cows are mammals and have lungs All whales are mammals and have lungs All humans are mammals and have lungs Therefore it is probable that all mammals have lungs

Induction and Deduction Exercise
Analyze these passages and identify the conclusion and whether it is a deductive or inductive argument. “He who obeys us is, as we maintain, thrice wrong; first, because in disobeying us he is disobeying his parents; secondly, because we are the authors of his education; thirdly, because he has made an agreement with us that he will duly obey our commands.”—Plato, the Crito

“As we approach the limits of growth in the quantity of education, further societal gains need to come from improving its performance. The central reason that the nation is “at risk” today is not because we are not supplying enough education but because our students are not absorbing enough of it.”—Chester Finn, “Towards Excellence in Education,” 1995

“Does the past exist? No. Does the future exist? No. Then only the present exists. Yes. But within the present there is no lapse of time? Quite so. Then time does not exist? Oh, I wish you wouldn’t be so tiresome.”—Bertrand Russell, Human Knowledge “As force is always on the side of the governed, the governors have nothing to support them but opinion. It is therefore on opinion only that government is founded.”—David Hume

Classical and Modern Rhetoric

Aristotelian Argument
1. Introduction: “paving the way, as it were, for what is to follow” Dispel Objections: dispel objections, deny the alleged fact, appeal to no injustice, and no harm

2. Narration: “some survey of the actions that form the subject-matter of the speech” 3. Argument: “to attempt demonstrative proofs” Proof Reply to Opponent: “break down the opponent’s case, whether by objection or by counter-syllogism” Interrogation

4. Epilogue A. “Make the audience well-disposed towards yourself and ill-disposed towards your opponent” B. “Magnify or minimize the leading facts” C. “Excite the required state of emotion in your hearers” D. “Refresh their memories”

Ciceronian Argument 1. Goodwill Secure the goodwill of your audience
2. State your Case 3. Define the Dispute 4. Your Allegations 5. Disprove Opponents 6. Peroration Expand and reinforce

Modern Arguments Currently, the 2 most influential perspectives on argumentation are those of: 1. Carl Rogers 2. Stephen Toulmin

Carl Rogers ( )

Carl Rogers In the 20th century, Carl Rogers, an Aristotelian, was an influential figure in argumentation because he favored compromise. Rogers’ style clearly influences University of Kentucky’s Lincoln Mullen’s argument in “How to Persuade with Ethos, Pathos, or Logos” (2011) that you cannot win an argument by arguing. “Even if you win, you may lose. No one likes to be wrong.”

Five Parts of a Rogerian Argument
1. Objective Statement of the Issue 2. Summarize Opposition’s Case 3. Statement of Your Position 4. If a Compromise of the position is possible, attempt it; if not, show how your position is also beneficial to one’s opponent; outline common ground or mutual concerns 5. Outline your Proposed Solution Demonstrate an understanding of your opponent’s position Use objective language Avoid loaded language or hint or moral superiority 5. Point out what both sides may gain

Stephen Toulmin ( ) “Data of some kind must be produced, if there is to be an argument there at all.”--Toulmin

Toulmin’s Five Parts of an Argument
1. Claim An argument intended to persuade 2. Data Plural of the Latin word datum, “something given” Support; factual information, especially information organized for analysis or used to reason or make decisions

Toulmin’s Five Parts of an Argument
3. Warrant How does the data support the claim? 4. Modal Qualifiers The use of words like “sometimes,” “most,” “many,” and “some” to qualify arguments 5. Rebuttal Offer a counter-argument

Rhetorical Devices Demosthenes—one of the greater orators of all-time; political activist for Athens. Distinguished as one of the Attic Orators William Shakespeare—the greatest playwright during the English Renaissance Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.—reverend and civil rights activist Masters of Oratory and Rhetoric: DEMOSTHENES, SHAKESPEARE, and KING

Rhetorical Devices of Comparison

Metaphors Sample Metaphor: Life is a waterfall A Metaphor is “an analogy [or comparison that identifies] one object with another and ascribing to the first object one or more of the qualities of the second” (“Metaphor”).

Master of Metaphors: William Shakespeare
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate” In these opening lines of “Sonnet 18,” Shakespeare begins an extended metaphor, comparing his lover to the tranquil summer season.

Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 18”
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more lovely and more temperate: rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, and summer’s lease hath all too short a date: sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines, and often is his gold complexion dimm’d; and every fair from fair sometime declines”

Master of Metaphors: William Shakespeare
“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances.” In this famous monologue from Act II, Scene VII of “As you Like It,” Shakespeare compares the world to a stage and life to a performance of the different stages of life.

Sample Metaphor In his essay “Why We Crave Horror Movies,” Stephen King explains, “for myself, I like to see the most aggressive of them [horror films]—Dawn of the Dead, for instance—as lifting a trap door in the civilized forebrain and throwing a basket of raw meat to the hungry alligators swimming around in that subterranean river beneath.”

Allusions Allusions are indirect references, “to a person, event, statement, or theme found in literature…history, mythology, religion, or popular culture…Because of the connotations they carry, allusions are used to enrich meaning or broaden the impact of the statement” (“Allusion”).

Allusions Types of Allusions HISTORICAL RELIGIOUS OR BIBLICAL LITERARY
CULTURAL OR CONTEMPORARY MYTHOLOGICAL POLITICAL

Master of Allusions: Steinbeck
“So the angel swung his sickle to the earth and gathered the clusters from the vine of the earth, and threw them into the great wine press of the wrath of God” (The title The Grapes of Wrath is a biblical allusion to the Book of Revelations 14:19-20) *Note “Bible” is capitalized. “Biblical,” however, is not (unless, of course, it starts a sentence).

Master of Allusions: Steinbeck
“Wherever they’s a fight so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there” (Steinbeck 472) is a biblical allusion to Matthew 26:52: “then said Jesus unto him, Put up again thy sword into his place: for all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword” This is proclaimed by Tom after he kills Casy’s attacker.

Master of Allusions: President Obama
‘“I Have a Dream.” [Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream”] Just words. “We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal.” [Jefferson’s “Declaration of Independence] Just words. “We have nothing to fear but fear itself.” [FDR’s First “Inaugural Address”] Just words. Just speeches” (Obama).

Rhetorical Devices of Repetition
From the Eagles’ “Hotel California,” “She got the Mercedes bends. She got a lot of pretty, pretty boys she calls friends. How they dance in the courtyard, sweet summer sweat.” Definition: the repetition of words or phrases, which comes in many forms, like anaphora, epizeuxis, and sibilance.

Repetition From the Eagles’ “Hotel California,”
“She got the Mercedes bends. She got [anaphora] a lot of pretty, pretty [epizeuxis] boys she calls friends. How they dance in the courtyard, sweet summer sweat.” [sibilance]

Masters of Repetition: Dr. King
“This sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality.”—Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech Example of Sibilance: repetition of words starting with “s”

Anaphora Anaphora is a rhetorical device where one and the same word forms the beginnings of successive phrases, clauses, or lines For example, “The more I read, the more I was led to abhor and detest my enslavers” (Frederick Douglass’ “Learning to Read and Write,” 147)

See the repetition of the opening phrase in successive phrases
Anaphora “It was heard in every sound, and seen in every thing. It was ever present to torment me with a sense of my wretched condition” (Douglass). See the repetition of the opening phrase in successive phrases

Antistrophe (Epistrophe)
Antistrophe is the repetition of the same word of phrase and the end of successive clauses. For example, “I would be the first to advocate obeying just laws. One has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws” (Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” 225)

Antistrophe “I saw nothing without seeing it, I heard nothing without hearing it, and felt nothing without feeling it”(Douglass). See the antistrophe, or the repetition of the same ending for successive phrases

Alliteration (a form of Repetition)
“Let us go forth and lead the land we love”—JFK’s “Inaugural Address” “We’ve come to our nation’s capital to cash a check”—Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” Alliteration: the repetition of the same sound, vowel, or consonant at the beginning of words in a sentence.

Climax (or Amplification)
A rhetorical climax is achieved thru the building up of impressive ideas, words, phrases, or clauses arranged to produce emphasis or to enhance importance

Masters of Repetition: JFK
“Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”—U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s “Inaugural Address” Example of Antimetabole: a repetition of words in reverse order Antimetabole: a form of chiasmus.

Epizeuxis (Palilogia)
“Words, words, words,” from William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is an example of epizeuxis, or the repetition of a single word for emphasis

Conduplicatio Conduplicatio is the repetition of a single word throughout a paragraph “There is no question that this nation cannot stand still, because we are in a deadly competition, a competition not only with the men of the Kremlin…We’re ahead in this competition,” from Richard Nixon’s “Opening Statement, First Debate with John F. Kennedy”

Leitmotif

Categories of Belief 1. Interpretation 2. Evaluation 3. Conclusion
Analysis of meaning of significance 2. Evaluation Judgment of value or quality (based on standards) 3. Conclusion Decision or opinion formed after considering relevant evidence 4. Prediction Statement about what will happen

Stages of Knowing Stage 1: Garden of Eden Stage 2: Anything Goes
Knowledge is clear Authorities are trusted Absolute No questioning Stage 2: Anything Goes Belief (all equal) No one really knows Relativism Stage 3: Thinking Critically Consider each perspective Moved by reasons Socrates’ “the unexamined life”

Thinking Critically about Evidence
1. Authorities Are the authorities credible? 2. Written References Credentials Disagreements Types of evidence 3. Factual Evidence Source of evidence Validity of interpretation and analysis 4. Personal Experience Circumstances Distortion/Mistakes Have others had similar or different experiences? Other explanations Author John Chaffee

Ethics Ethics Derives from the Greek ethos, for “moral purpose” or “character” Moral Derives from the Latin moralis, which means “custom”

Ethics Moral Values Ethical Egoism Divine Command Theory Hedonist
Right action promotes speakers’ interests (the opposite is wrong) Divine Command Theory Right and wrong is determined by God Hedonist People should do what gives them pleasure Authoritarian Authorities are always right

References Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. Elements of Argument.
Hoffman. Adios Strunk and White. Style: Toward Clarity and Grace. The Rhetorical Tradition. Bizzel.

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