1. APES Unit 2 Ecology and the Living World

2. Today’s Learning Targets I can describe the key parts of an ecosystem I can explain the difference between populations and communities I can explain the difference between organisms being autotrophic and heterotrophic I can create and interpret a climatogram to identifying and understanding biomes.

3. What is an ecosystem? Ecosystems are made up of interacting species and the abiotic environment in a geographical area. Ecosystems demonstrate an exchange of energy and nutrients among inhabiting organisms.

4. As any population of organisms grows, it is held in check by interactions among a variety of biotic and abiotic factors.

5. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic factors? Biotic: Biotic: all the living things or their materials that directly or indirectly affect an organism in its environment.  Includes organisms, their presence, parts, interaction, and wastes.  Factors such as parasitism, disease, and predation as well.

6. Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors Abiotic: Abiotic: non-living physical and chemical factors which affect the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce.  Ex. light intensity; temperature range; type of soil or rock; pH level (acidity or alkalinity); water availability; dissolved gases; level of pollutant

7. What are the Levels of Organization in the biosphere?

8. Levels of Organization Same species Interacting populations Energy flux & cycling of nutrients

9. Ecosystems It is difficult to define the boundaries of an ecosystem. Most ecosystems are open in that they exchange materials and organisms with other ecosystems.

10. What is the difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs?

11. Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs Autotrophs: Autotrophs:  “self-feeders” – organisms that create their own organic molecules or food.  AKA Producers Heterotrophs Heterotrophs:  Organisms that must consume other organisms for energy.  AKA Consumers

12. What is the difference between an organisms’ niche and its habitat?

13. Niche vs. Habitat Habitat The place or set of environmental conditions in which an organism lives.

14. Habitat vs. Niche Niche Niche  An organisms’ role it plays in its biological community.  Includes how it obtains food, its interactions with the biotic & abiotic factors of its surroundings, its range of tolerance, and what services it provides to the community.  FYI: Fundamental niche: potential niche it can biologically occupy; realized niche is the role it actually plays.

16. Habitat vs. Niche Analogy An organism’s habitat is its “address” while its niche is its “occupation”

17. Habitat vs. Niche The Kingfisher and the Heron share the same habitat, but have different niches. The Kingfisher hunts during the day, searching for small fish and crustaceans in open water from a high perch. It is also a ‘security guard’ for the mangrove community, voicing a warning when humans approach. The Heron feeds in shallow water among the dense roots of the mangroves by slowly stalking its prey. It is active at night and secretive during the day. Humans occupy many habitats and have a generalized niche. That is, they perform many roles in many different areas. The Seacow has a specialized niche. It requires warm, calm water and feeds only on specific varieties of seagrass. It also requires a stable, undisturbed environment to survive.

18. Niches and Interspecific Competition occurs when two similar species in the same location are occupying similar niches. If the niches overlap too much, then it could result in restricting the range of the species so they do not overlap, or the migration of one species to another place. Other possibilities include one species could become extinct. competitive exclusion IC can lead to competitive exclusion (aka Gause’s law) The principle has been paraphrased: "complete competitors cannot coexist".

19. Niches and Interspecific Competition cont. – What if…? If the two closely related species are occupying different niches, If the two related species are occupying different habitats, because they are not in the same location. If the two unrelated species are occupying different niches, If the populations are the same species, No Interspecific Competition

20. What are the terrestrial biomes and the differences between them?

21. Biomes - independent homework assignment Use the online Biology textbook (See School Fusion LINKS section) to fill out the Terrestrial Biomes Chart, then Define the words on the second page which refer to aquatic biomes (you may Google them). We will review biomes in class next week.

22. Classwork/homework assignment Using the climatogram handout: a.Read instructions and purpose (pg 1) b.Find the average precipitation and temperature for each biome (pg 2) c.Plot the data for all four biomes (pg 3) d.The climatograms on pg 4 are to be used as a reference (in addition to the 4 you made on pg 3) e.Complete Part II about San Francisco (pg 5-6) f.Finally, plot (on pg 10) the climatogram for your table group from the unknowns list (pg 7) g.We will do the questions on pg 9 next time in class

23. So can you…? I can describe the key parts of an ecosystem I can explain the difference between populations and communities I can explain the difference between organisms being autotrophic and heterotrophic I can create and interpret a climatogram to identifying and understanding biomes.

24. Unit 2 Lesson 2: Unit 2 Lesson 2: - Review & Finish Climatograms - FRQ Guest Speaker - Assign Endangered/Invasive Species Projects - Trophic Levels & Pyramids Review - Popcorn Relay Race

25. Lesson 2: Today’s Learning Targets I can create and interpret a climatogram to identifying and understanding biomes. I will better understand the Collegeboards’ rules/guidelines for writing FRQs I will think about endangered & invasive species that I want to do my projects on I will explain what happens to energy as it travels through the trophic levels.

26. Climatograms

27. Homework: Homework: Prep for the Endangered Species Pamphlet/Invasive Species Poster assignment Come up with a legitimate list of your top 5 endangered and top 5 invasive animals you would like to do your Endangered/Invasive project on for next class. NOTE: They MUST be currently rated as endangered/invasive. *First come/first serve next class (only one student per organism). See handout on Endangered/Invasive Projects

28. Food Chains vs Food Webs Productivity Productivity - the amount of biomass produced in a given area in a given period of time. Primary productivity: photosynthesis because it is basic to all other growth in an ecosystem. Secondary productivity - manufacturing of biomass by organisms that eat plants

29. Food Chains vs. Food Webs  Food Chain - linked feeding series  Food Web - Most consumers have multiple food sources  Trophic level - An organism’s feeding status in a food web.

30. Trophic Levels Organisms can also be identified by the type of food they consume: TermTypeExample – Herbivores (Plants) {Deer} – Carnivores (Meat) {Wolves} – Omnivores (Plants/Meat) {Bears} – Scavengers (Carcasses) {Crows} – Detritivores (Debris) {Ants} – Decomposers(All){Bacteria}

32. Ecological Pyramids If the organisms at various trophic levels are arranged diagrammatically, they form a pyramid with many more producers than consumers. Due to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, energy is lost at each level of the pyramid. – Energy is lost as heat in metabolic processes. – Predator efficiency < 100% – 10% Rule (Energy / Biomass) 100 kg clover  10 kg rabbit  1 kg fox

33. Energy Pyramid

35. Producers Producers- Autotrophs Primary Primary consumers- Herbivores Secondary Secondary consumers- small carnivores Tertiary Tertiary consumers- top carnivores Available energy & biomass decrease How much energy gets passed through the trophic levels? Only 10% of the available energy gets passed upward to the next trophic level So how much energy is used at each trophic level???

36. Producers Producers- Autotrophs Primary Primary consumers- Herbivores Secondary Secondary consumers- small carnivores Tertiary Tertiary consumers- top carnivores Available energy & biomass decrease How much energy gets passed through the trophic levels? 100% 10% 1% 0.1%

37. Energy Pyramids decreases Amount of available energy decreases for higher consumers producers It takes a large number of producers to support a small number of primary consumers It takes a large number of primary consumers to support a small number of secondary consumers 37

38. 38

39. 39 The amount of biomass at one level of the pyramid depends on the amount of energy available. Certain toxins tend to become concentrated at upper levels of the pyramid Biomass pyramids tend to vary for different ecosystems

40. Trophic Levels and Energy The number of individuals belonging to an energy pyramid does not affect the number of trophic levels. If anything, it would support more level. Also the biomass does not affect the structure of the pyramid.

41. Popcorn Relay Read Introduction, Purpose & Laws of Thermodynamics Review procedure Take data sheet and pencil with you outside

42. Lesson 2: So can you… I can create and interpret a climatogram to identifying and understanding biomes. I understand the Collegeboards’ rules/guidelines for writing FRQs much better I will think about endangered & invasive species that I want to do my projects on I can explain what happens to energy as it travels through the trophic levels.

43. Unit 2 Lesson 3: Unit 2 Lesson 3: Computer Lab Day 1. Work on Endangered Species Pamphlet & Invasive Species Poster 2. Complete Symbiosis Worksheet 3. Work on Biomes Worksheet (if necessary & if time allows)

44. Unit 2 Lesson 4: Unit 2 Lesson 4: - Unit 1 Test Debrief - Review Biomes Worksheet - Wetland Characteristics - Succession Introduction

45. Lesson 4: Today’s Learning Targets I can explain the defining characteristics of the various biomes I can describe the terms related to aquatic biomes I can explain wetlands characteristics and issues I can explain what succession is

46. Biomes Review

47. Wetland Characteristics Wetlands are ecotones where aquatic life zones border terrestrial biomes Very important for both aquatic life and terrestrial life. Protected under the Clean Water Act by both EPA & U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 3 characteristics: Vegetation adapted to aquatic environment Soils with hydric characteristics Water covering the land or soaking the soil long enough to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part

48. Wetland Examples Mangrove Swamp Salt Marshes Bottomland Hardwood Swamp Estuaries Fresh Water Marshes

49. Aquatic Biomes Fresh Water (low [salt] less than 1%) – Wetlands, Streams, Rivers, Ponds, Lakes Salt Water (high [salt]) – Oceans, Reefs, Estuaries

51. Major Zones Photic Zone- area that light hits, higher amounts of photosynthesis Aphotic Zone– little light passes through, lower amounts of autotrophic life ~ Fresh Water Zones ~ Littoral Zone- topmost zone (near shore of lake/pond) Warmest area and diverse in life Limnetic Zone– open water area, top part well lit Profundal Zone– deeper area where organisms from the upper zones die and fall to

52. Salt Water Zones Intertidal Zone– waves encounter land (shore line or rocky coast) Pelagic Zone– Open ocean, area farther form shore. No general temp because of the mixing of currents. Benthic Zone– below Pelagic Zone but not deep ocean. Temperature decreases as depth increases Abyssal Zone– Deep Ocean, water is very cold (~3° C), highly pressured, high in oxygen content but low in nutritional content

53. Succession Introduction What am I missing here?

54. Ecological Succession predictable sequence establish A predictable change in the sequence of species that establish in a particular area over time

55. Primary Primary succession Succession that occurs on surface is where no soil exists (Ex. after a volcanic eruption or when glaciers melt and rock becomes exposed.)

56. Pioneer species Pioneer species: The first species to populate the area

57. Secondary Secondary succession Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil (Ex. after wildfires burn woodlands, or when farming land is abandoned.)

60. Climax communities A climax community occurs when succession slows down and a stable community is established.

61. Lesson 4: So can you…? I can explain the defining characteristics of the various biomes I can describe the terms related to aquatic biomes I can explain wetlands characteristics and aquatic zones I can explain the differences between primary and secondary succession

62. Unit 2 Lesson 5: Unit 2 Lesson 5: - Ecotones Lab - Succession Game

63. Lesson 5: Today’s Learning Targets I can explain what an ecotone is I can explain succession to a greater degree

64. Lesson 5: So can you…? I can explain what an ecotone is I can explain succession to a greater degree

65. Unit 2 Lesson 6: Unit 2 Lesson 6: - Biodiversity

66. Lesson 6: Today’s Learning Targets I can explain what biodiversity means and the different types of biodiversity that exist

67. Biodiversity of the Species Concept What is Biodiversity? – Genetic Diversity - measures variety of different versions of same genes within a species – Species Diversity - measures number of different kinds of organisms within a community – Ecological Diversity - measures richness and complexity of a community

68. What is Species Diversity? – Species Richness - total number of species in a community – Species Evenness -relative abundance of individuals within each species

69. What Are Species? Species definitions: – Reproductive isolation - organisms that breed in nature and produce fertile offspring – Phylogenetic species concept - emphasizes the cladistic relationships (branches on a taxonomic tree) – Evolutionary species concept - defines species in terms of evolutionary history

70. Molecular Techniques DNA sequencing and other molecular techniques give insight into taxonomic and evolutionary relationships. – Genome - total DNA sequence that characterizes a species – Species classification or even identification of an individual can be done from samples such as blood, fur, or feces.

71. How Many Species Are There? Currently 1.5 million species identified Estimates range between 3-50 million – Recent data support an estimate of 4 to 6 million insect species alone. – Invertebrates make up 76% of all known species, and probably most of yet to be discovered species. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots. – 34 hotspots (1.4% of world’s land area) contain 75% of the world’s most threatened mammals, birds and amphibians.

72. Benefits of Biodiversity Food – Wild plants could provide new sources of food or more genetic diversity for existing crops. Drugs and Medicines – More than half of all prescriptions contain some natural product. – Pharmaceutical companies actively prospect tropical countries for products. – Resources often extracted without compensation (biopiracy). Sharing profits provides an incentive to preserve native species.

73. Biodiversity Hotspots

74. Benefits of Biodiversity Ecological Benefits – Soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy absorption, and biogeochemical and hydrological cycles all depend on biodiversity. We do not fully understand biological communities. Loss of a seemingly insignificant species can be damaging.

75. Benefits of Biodiversity Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits – Hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, etc. – USFWS estimates Americans spend $104 billion annually on wildlife-related recreation. – Ecotourism can be an important form of sustainable economic development. – Existence (intrinsic) value - organisms have value in and of themselves.

76. Threats to Biodiversity Extinction - elimination of a species – Natural Causes In undisturbed ecosystems, background rate appears to be one species per decade. – In this century, human impacts have accelerated that rate, causing perhaps hundreds to thousands of extinctions annually.

77. Natural Extinction Fossil record suggests more than 99% of all species ever in existence are now extinct. Periodically, the Earth has experienced 5 mass extinctions. Permian period - 95% of marine species and nearly half of all plant and animal families died out 250 million years ago. End of Cretaceous - Dinosaurs and 50% of existing genera disappeared 65 million years ago.

78. Accelerating Extinction Rates Humans are accelerating the natural extinction rates by 100 to 1000x. – If present trends continue, between 22% and 47% of all plants species will become extinct within 50 years. Animals dependent upon them would also go extinct. – This is equivalent to other mass extinctions like the Cretaceous extinction.

79. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Acronym HIPPO summarizes the issues: habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, population, and overharvesting. Habitat Destruction – Biggest reason for current increase in extinction is habitat loss Conversion of forest to farmland, cities, etc. – Only 1/5 of remaining forest is old growth. Loss of habitat due to mining, dams, destructive fishing practices Habitat is fragmented into small, scattered plots

80. What is the definition of endangered and invasive species?

81. Endangered Species a species whose numbers are so small that the species is at risk of extinction

82. Endangered Species – Think about it… What could cause the decline of a species? What can be done to slow or reverse the decline? What legislation has been enacted to protect endangered species? What might prevent an endangered species from rebounding quickly? What might some economic reasons to protect an endangered species? Ecological reasons?

83. Invasive Species “an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health.”

84. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Invasive Species – Invasive (exotic) organisms thrive in new territory where they are free of usual predators, diseases, or resource limitations that limited them in original habitat. Over past 300 years, approximately 50,000 non-native species have become established in the U.S. – At least 4,500 are free-living. » 15% cause environmental damage.

85. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Examples of Invasive Species – Eurasian milfoil – European green crab – Kudzu vine – Purple loosestrife – Zebra mussels – Chestnut blight Island ecosystems are particularly susceptible Example: New Zealand

86. Invasive Species

87. What are some man-made impacts that have caused reductions in biodiversity?

89. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Commercial Products and Live Specimens – Wildlife smuggling is very profitable. Fur, horns, live specimens, folk medicine Leopard fur coat = $100,000 Mature cactus = $1,000 5 million wild birds sold worldwide each year – Additional 3 million caught but die before reaching market 128 million tropical fish sold annually in U.S.

90. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Bush meat marke t - more than 1 million tons of wild animals are sold for human food annually. Cyanide fishing is killing reefs in the Philippines and Indonesia. Cyanide released above coral reefs to stun fish. A single diver can kill all life on 200 sq. meters of coral reef in one day.

91. What legislation exists to prevent future reductions in biodiversity?

92. Endangered Species Management Hunting and Fishing Laws – By 1890’s, most states had enacted some hunting and fishing laws. General idea was pragmatic, not aesthetic or moral preservation. In general, regulations have been extremely successful. – White tailed deer – Wild turkey – Snowy egret

93. Endangered Species Act Established in 1973 – Endangered – Endangered are those considered in imminent danger of extinction. – Threatened – Threatened are those likely to become endangered, at least locally, in the near future. – Vulnerable – Vulnerable are those that are naturally rare or have been locally depleted to a level that puts them at risk.

94. Endangered Species Act ESA regulates a wide range of activities involving endangered species: – Taking (harassing, harming, pursuing, hunting, shooting, killing, capturing, or collecting) either accidentally, or on purpose – Selling – Importing into or Exporting out of the U.S. – Possessing – Transporting or Shipping Prohibitions apply to whole organisms, body parts, and products made from the organisms.

95. Endangered Species Act Currently, U.S. has 1,264 species on its Endangered and Threatened lists, and about 386 candidate species waiting for consideration. – Number reflects more about human interests than actual status Invertebrates make up 75% of all species, but only 9% of T/E list. – Listing process is extremely slow; at least 18 species have gone extinct since being nominated for protection.

96. Recovery Plans Once a species is endangered, USFWS is required to propose a recovery plan detailing the rebuilding of the species to sustainable levels. – Takes years, is expensive, and is subject to political interference – Once a species is endangered, much of its habitat and ability to survive is often compromised.

97. Recovery Plans Some endangered species merit special attention. – Keystone species - species has major effect on other members of community – Indicator species - tied to specific communities or successional stages – Umbrella species - require large blocks of undisturbed habitat – Flagship species - attractive organisms to which people react emotionally (Panda) Notable successes include bald eagle, alligator, whooping crane

98. Recovery Plans Opponents have continually tried to require economic costs and benefits be incorporated into planning. – In 1978, construction of Tellico Dam in Tennessee threatened a fish called the snail darter. A federal committee was given the power to override the ESA for economic reasons. – Sometimes economic interests are in conflict. Commercial and sport fishing for salmon in Columbia River is worth 1 billion per year, but farmers and electric utilities want the dams that provide irrigation and hydroelectric power.

99. Private Land and Critical Habitat Eighty percent of habitat for more than half of all listed species is on non-public property. – Supreme Court has ruled destroying habitat equates to taking. USFWS has been negotiating Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP) with private landowners. – Landowners allowed to harvest resources or build on part of land as long as endangered species benefits

100. Reauthorizing ESA Endangered Species Act officially expired in 1992. Farmers, loggers, miners, ranchers, developers have tried to prevent its reauthorization. Scientists think we should focus on continent-wide preservation of ecosystems that support maximum biodiversity rather than individual species. Gap analysis - seeks out unprotected landscapes rich in species

101. Gap Analysis This biodiversity map of the island of Hawaii shows areas of high species richness that are not protected in any preserve and preserves that have scenic and recreational value, but little in the way of species protection.

102. Habitat Protection Grumbine suggests 4 principles: – Protect enough habitat for all native species in a given region – Manage at regional scale large enough to accommodate natural disturbances – Plan over a period of centuries – Allow for human use at a level that does not result in significant ecological degradation

103. International Wildlife Treaties Convention on International Trade In Endangered Species (CITES) - 1975 – Regulates trade in living specimens and products derived from listed species – Currently lists 700 species threatened with extinction by international trade

104. Captive Breeding Breeding programs in zoos and botanical gardens are one method of saving threatened species. – Repositories of genetic diversity Most mammals in North American zoos are now produced from captive-breeding programs. – Reintroduction programs – But many species do not reproduce in captivity, and there are not enough zoos to maintain every species.

105. Captive Breeding Zoos have limited space – How many can/should we save? Should we preserve pathogens? Parasites? – Continued inbreeding of zoo specimens may lead to fertility and infant survival problems. – Natural habitat may disappear while we are busy conserving the species itself. Another alternative is to attempt to save species in the wild. – Provide funding for protection in native habitats

106. Neem of Hawaii Restored by Captive Breeding

107. Read the case study then identify the main points Case Study American Whooping Crane and the California Condor American Whooping CraneCalifornia Condor

109. Different Unit

110. Biogeochemical Cycles

111. Nitrogen Cycle Denitrification is a biochemical pathway in which anaerobic bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3) in their respiration instead of oxygen and as product nitrogen gas (N2) is released back to the atmosphere. This information is usually presented with the nitrogen cycle. 2 NO3 + 10e- + 12H2 + → N2 + 6 H2O -Ammonification is a bacterial pathway decomposes organic nitrogen to NH4 + or NH3. The source of the nitrogen may come from nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) or proteins -Excretion is the process of animals eliminating nitrogenous wastes -Assimilation in biology is the conversion of absorbed food into substance of the body. Example absorbing amino acids and assimilating them into proteins like hemoglobin for the body. -Nitrogen fixation is he biochemical pathway of converting nitrogen gas (N2) into the more usable form of ammonia (NH3). N2 + 6 H -> 2NH3