biologiuri iaraRi civi omis periodSi leqcia # 4

1. mimoxilva II msoflio omis dasasrulisaTvis aSS programa slaidebi 2 - 3 aSS programa slaidebi 4 - 11 aSS-s saqmianobis naTesebis sawinaaRmdego aspeqtebi slaidebi 11 - 16 sabWoTa programa slaidebi 17 - 20 SeniSvna: am leqciis mizania mokled mimoixilos civi omis periodis SeteviTi xasiaTis biologiuri saomari saSualebebis programebi. rogroc wina leqciebSi, yuradReba eqceva ZiriTad agentebze tanamedrove Sexedulebebs. Tumca aris sami sakiTxi, romlebic arebulia aSS da sabWoTa uzarmazari programebidan da mcenareebis sawinaaRmdego saomari saSualebebidan. aRsaniSnavia, rom jer kidev arsebobs sakmao informacia, romelic sajarod xelmisawvdomi araa, gansakuTrebiT sabWoTa programidan. agreTve yuradReba araa miqceuli iseTi qveynebis omisSemdgom programebze, rogorebicaa didi britaneti da safrangeTi, an ufro mogvianebiT erayisa da samxreT afrikis programebi. yvela es sakiTxi SegiZliaT ixiloT Mark Wheelis, M., Rózsa, L., and Dando, M. R. (Eds.), (2006) Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

2. omis dasasrulisaTvis kanadelebis daintereseba “…1944 wlis gazafxulze…dazvervis angariSSi aRniSnuli iyo, rom germanelma samxedroebma Tavis arsenals botulizmi daumates…” “…kanadis samxedro xelmZRvanelobaze didi STabeWdileba moaxdina... eqsperimentebma, romlebmac aCvena, rom botulizmi efeqturi iaraRia…” SeniSvna: II msoflio omis dasasrulisaTvis gamarjvebuli zalebis umravlesoba biologiur saomar saSualebebs mniSvnelovan safrTxed aRiqvamda. magaliTi aRebulia kanaduri programis donald averiseuli analizidan (SIPRI No 18.). kanada ganicdida, rom botulizmis toqsini SeiZleba gamoyenebul iqnas mokavSireTa winaaRmdeg, rodesac isini evropaSi daeSvebian. es SiSi gaifanta toqsoidebiT imunizacia ar CautarebiaT, magram botulizmis toqsini kvlav rCeba SesaZlo biologiur iaraRad da ra Tqma unda, SesaZlebelia gamoiwvios mravali sirTule, Tu mosaxleobis sawinaaRmdegod iqna gamoyenebuli. Ref: Avery, D (1999) ‘Canadian biological and toxin warfare research, development and planning, 1925–45’, In Geissler, E., and van Courtland Moon, J. (Eds.) Biological and Toxin Weapons Research, Development and Use from the Middle Ages to 1945 (SIPRI Chemical & Biological Warfare Studies No. 18). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 190-213

3. botulizmis toqsini, rogorc biologiuri iaraRi “botulizmis toqsini aris yvelaze momwamlavi cnobili nivTiereba….toqsini aris TuTiis proteinaza, romelic Slis 1 an met hibridul cilas, romelTa saSualebiTac neironuli vezikulebi neirokunTovani dakavSirebis adgilebSi gamohyofs acetilqolins..” “…botulizmis didi afeTqebebis dros Cndeba didi moTxovnileba sasunTq aparatebze, intensiuri Terapiis sawolebze, da gamocdil personalze, romelsac SeuZlia imuSaos adgilobrivi saSualebebiT da kvirebis an Tveebis manZilze…” SeniSvna: es SeniSvnebi aRebulia statiidan ‘botulizmis toqsini, rogorc biologiuri iaraRi’, JAMA vol 285 no 8 , 1059 – 1070. rodesac toqsini iaraRad gamoiyeneba, toqsini pirdapir abinZurebs sakvebs an SeiZleba gamoyenebul iqnas aerozolis gamoyenebiT. aerozolis gamoyenebis SemTxvevaSi msxverpli isunTqavs mas filtviT.

4. aSS programis etapebi kvleva da dagegmva (1946 – 49) gafarToeba koreis omis dros (1950 – 53) reorganizacia (1954 – 58) omis SezRuduli periodi (1959 – 62) damsjeli RonisZiebebisadmi adaptacia (1963 – 68) ganiaraReba da etapobrivi Semcireba (1973 – 77) SeniSvna: aSS-s programis Sesaxeb es da Sewmdgomi slaidebi aRebulia aSS-s armiis saministros 1977 wlis Tebervlis gausaidumloebeli angariSidan saxelwodebiT “aSS armiis saqmianoba aSS biologiuri saomari saSualebebis programis farglebSi”, romelic moamzada l.l.laflinma (L.L.Laughlin, Jr.). programis etapebis am CamonaTvalidan naTlad Cans, rom biologiuri iaraRis warmoeba samxedro miznebisaTvis gagrZelda ornaxevari dekadis manZilze.

5. 1946 - 1949 “rodesac II msoflio omi damTavrda, CWS – ma (qimiuri saomari saSualebebis samsaxuri) ZiriTad misiad gaixada qimiuri iaraRisa da biologiuri iaraRisadmi mzadyofna mxolod sapasuxo qmedebebis politikis WrilSi…” …saqmianoba koncentrirebuli iyo biologiuri iaraRis agentebis kvlevaze da TavdacviT aspeqtebze; zogi gamoyenebiTi kvleva exeboda gafrqvevis meqanizmebs; kvlevasa da ganviTarebaze mimafrTuli mniSvnelovani saqmianobis farglebSi adarebdnen II msoflio omis dors Catarebul cdebs; da mniSvnelovani kvlevebi tardeboda ganviTarebiTi programebis farglebSi...” SeniSvna: aq mniSvnelovania ori punqti. pirveli, mxolod sapasuxo moqmedebebis (anu daSinebis) naTlad gamoxatuli politika, da meore, omis dros Catarebul did samuSaoze dafuZneba, kvlevisa da ganviTarebis axali programis Camoyalibeba. es ar iyo mcire naCqarevi Zalisxmeca.

6. 1950 - 53 “pirveli mokrZalebuli bi sapasuxo saSualebebi miRweul iqna 1951 wels, rodesac SemuSavda, gamoicada da sahaero ZalebisaTvis warmoebaSi CaeSva naTesebis sawinaaRmdego Wurvi …” “…pirveli didmasStabiani mowylvadobis testi Catarda san franciskos sanapiroze 1950 wlis seqtemberSi simulantebis, BG, da fluorescentuli nawilakebis gamoyenebiT…” SeniSvna: saWiro ar aris imis Tqma, rom civi omis periodSi mosaxleoba im did teritoriebze, sadac gamocda tardeboda, winaswar gafrTxilebuli ar iyo.

7. 1954 – 58 (i) “… 1953 wlis ivlisSi, rodesac fain blafis arsenalSi (PBA) didi warmoebis mSenebloba TiTqmis dasasruls uaxlovdeboda, ….is amuSavda 1954 wlis gazafxulze, da pirveli produqcia iyo Brucella suis (undulant cxelebis gamomwvevi agenti). erTi wlis Semdeg daiwyo momakvdinebeli agentis, Pastuerella tularensis (tularemia) warmoeba.” SeniSvna: studentebiusaTvis mniSvnelovania gaigon, rom biologiur saomar saSualebebad paTogenebisa da toqsinebis mxolod mcire raodenoba gamodgeba, gasuli saukunis SeteviTi programebis guldasmiT Seswavlam migviyvana myar daskvnamde, rom maTi kvlevebidan sasargeblo Sedegebis gamotana SeiZleba saomari saSualebebis agentebis Sesaxeb. aq Cven vxedavT, rom aSS-s programa moicavda iseTi Zalian mZime agentebis warmoebas, romelic iwvevs brucelozs da ufro momakvdinebeli agentisas, romelic isvevs tularemias.

8. 1954 – 58 (ii) “…samoqalaqo biologiur dacvaze momuSave jgufi Tvlis, rom F tularensis aris saSiSi potenciuri biologiuri iaraRi misi maRali infeqciurobis, advilad gafrqvevis SesaZleblobis, da daavadebisa da sikvdilis gamowvevis unaris gamo.” “…1950-ian da 1960-ian wlebSi amerikelma samxedroebma SeimuSaves iaraRi, romelic F tularensis -is aerozolis gafrqvevis saSualebas iZleva…” SeniSvna: es citata aRebulia statiidan “tularemia, rogorc biologiuri iaraRi” (JAMA, vol 285, no 21, 2763 – 2773). ra Tkma unda, earozolirebuli agenti gamoiwvevs infeqcias inhalaciis meSveobiT da swrafi mkurnalobis gareSe SesaZloa bevri sikvdili gamoiwvios. ufro metic, bolo drois sabWoTa naSromebSi naTqvamia, rom gamoimuSaves rezistentuli formebi.

9. 1954 – 58 (iii) “…sabWoTa gancxadebebSi naTlad iyo gamoTqmuli principi, rom qs da bs iaraRi momavlis omebSi gamoyenebul unda iyos masobrivi ganadgurebisaTvis. 1956 wels, gadasinjul bi/qi politikaSi naTqvami iyo, rom aSS mzad unda yofiliyo bi an qi gamoyenebisaTvis saerTod omis SemTxvevaSi, raTa samxedro saqmeSi efeqturoba aemaRlebina…” (originaluri xazgasma) SeniSvna: mraval adamians, romelsac ar Seuswavlia bi, ar sjera, rom saomari saSualebebis es forma SeiZleba arsebobdes. aq sruliad sapirispiro oficialuri debulebaa mocemuli. mizani ar iyo biologiuri iaraRis, rogorc sapasuxo saSualebis arseboba.

10. 1959 - 62 “1959 wlis bolosaTvis qimiuri korpusis misiam II msoflio omis Semdgomi droidan arnaxul simaRles miaRwia. samxedro samsaxurebi agzavnidnenmoTxovnebs bi aRWurvilobaze, romelic moicavda saartilerio gasavrcelebel saSualebebs, raketebs, upiloto TviTfrinavebs, da sxva ufro mcire zomis iaraRis sistemebs…” “1960 wlis zafxulSi qi/bi erovnuli politika… romelic gadasinjul iqna, da gascda “mxolod sapasuxos” 1958 wlis martSi xelaxla iqna damtkicebuli…” SeniSvna: am droisaTvis ufro metad wuxdnen waomari saSualebebis naklebobis gamo, da, amrigad, gazrdili iyo interesi qi da bi agentebis mimarTac, romlebic SeiZleba gamoyenebuliyo mcire zomis konfliqtebSi, rogorc inkapacitantebi. es interesebi mas Semdeg araerTxel wamoiwia win, da, bolo dros, e.w. “araletaluri agentebis” saxiT.

11. 1963 - 68 “am periodis TavdacviT programebSi xazgasmuli iyo vietnamis omis xelSewyoba ….umTavresi… bi Zalisxmeva mimarTuli iyo personalis dacvisa da naTesebis dacvis agentebze moTxovnis dakmayofilebaze. fain blafis arsenalSi sawarmos mSenebloba dasrulda, da 1964 – 1967 wlebSi man ramodenime agenti awarmoa. sxvadasxva tipis bi aRWurviloba gadaizida da Senaxul iqna …” SeniSvna: 1960-iani wlebis dasasrulisaTvis aSS-m daiwyo bi-s bi-ze uaris Tqmis procesi, amave dros, 1970-iani wlebis dasawyisSi daiwyo molaparakebebi btik-ze. magram amave dros sabWoTa kavSirma, sadac daiwyo genetikuri sazogadoebis gamanadgurebeli lisenkos gacamtvereba, gadawyvita moculobiTi SeteviTi xasiaTis bi programis garSemo aeRorZinebina Tanamedrove biologia. vidre am programis ganxilvas SevudgebodeT, mniSvnelovania, rom studentebma gaigon aSS-s naTesebis saWinaaRmdegod mimarTuli programa vietnamSi – es iyo mcenaris sinTeturi bioregulatoris gamoyeneba, romelic iseve SeiZleba bi-d CaiTvalos, rogorc qi-d, da ganvixiloT is momavali safrTxe, rasac bioregulatorebi SeiZleba Seicavdes.

12. aSS-s saqmianobis naTesebis sawinaaRmdego aspeqtebi dasawyisi kvleva testireba agentebi samizneebi SeniSvna: naTesebis sawinaaRmdego biologiuri saomari saSualebebis farTo speqtri, romelSic Sedioda sokoebi, baqteriebi, da, Sesabamisad, virusebi, gamoicada maTi naTesebis sawinaaRmdego moqmedebis mixedviT. am programis, romelic gagrZelda 25 wels da Sedegad moitana asawyobi saSualebebis (agentebi da amunicia) Seqmna, dadebiTi mxare iyo is, rom is gadaizarda aSS SeiaraRebuli Zalebis ganuyofel nawilad, da mis magaliTze Tvali SegviZlia mivadevnoT programis ganviTarebas: dasawyisi, kvleva, testireba, agentebi da miznebi.

13. aSS-s saqmianobis aspeqtebi - dasawyisi dazvervisa da presis spekulaciebma germaniis mxridan evropaSi naTesebze SesaZlo bi Setevis Sesaxeb Sedegad moitana gafarToebuli muSaoba naTesebis sawinaaRmdego sapasuxo dartymis SesaZleblobebis ganviTarebis mxriv. Semdgomi Zalisxmeva amgvari SesaZleblobebis ganviTarebisaTvis gamomdinareobda sabWoTa sasoflo-sameurneo kulturebis saWinaaRmdego bi SesaZleblobebis Sesaxeb aSS dazvervis angariSebis gaurkvevlobidan omis Semdgom periodSi. SeniSvna: dazvervis angariSebi zedmetad afasebdnen rogorc germaniis zraxvebsa da SesaZleblobebs, aseve omis Semdgomi periodis sabWoTa kavSiris SesaZleblobebs. magram germaniis mier I msoflio omSi gamoyenebuli cxovelTa sawinaaRmdego da naTesebis sawinaaRmdego biologiuri saomari saSualebebi gvafiqrebinebda sesaZlo momaval Setevebze.

14. aSS-s saqmianobis aspeqtebi - kvleva qvemoT moyvanili aCvenebs aSS mikrobul naTesebis sawinaaRmdego programas , romelic daiwyo 1940-iani wlebis dasawyisSi da gagrZelda 25 wlis manZilze : “Stamebis SerCeva…, zrdis optimaluri pirobebis da kulturis aRebis teqnikis SemuSaveba da maTi kargad gafrqvevisaTvis momzadeba.” SeniSvna: britanul da aSS kvlevisa da ganviTarebis programebs naTesebis sawinaaRmdego biologiuri saomari saSualebebis farTo speqtris ganviTarebis mxriv – agentebis SerCevis mxriv - bevri ram hqondaT saerTo. Tumca britanuli programebi ufro mciremasStabiani iyo da fokusirebuli iyo fundamentur laboratoriul kvlevebze, orive programa, magaliTad, cnobda qimiuri da biologiuri agentebis gamoyenebas kvlevisaTvis, da awarmoebdnen sokoebis potenciuri gamanagdurebeli zemoqmedebis Seswavlas mcenareul paTogenebze. Ref: Whitby, S., and Rogers, P. (1997) ‘Anti-crop Biological Warfare – Implications of the Iraqi and US Programs’, Defense & Security Analysis, 13(3), pp. 303 – 317.

15. aSS-s saqmianobis aspeqtebi – agentebi da aRWurviloba 1949 wlisaTvis warmodgenili iqna moxseneba, romelSic naTqvami iyo, rom SesaZlebeli iyo aSS-s mier mcenareuli paTogenebis warmoeba. : “80 akri inficirebul marcvleulian parTobidan SeiZleba SEvagrovoT erTi tona sporebi…[da] mcenareuli paTogenebis sakmarisi raodenoba, raTa sapasuxo dartyma mivayenoT [SesaZlebeli iqneba] miviRoT …eqvs TveSi”. warmoebul da Senaxul iqna sokovani naTesebis sawinaaRmdego 5 paTogenis didi raodenoba. sxvadasxva saxis iaraRi, danawevrebuli Wurvebis, zondiani Wurvebis, jgufuri aRWurvilobis da raketebis CaTvliT, da yvelaferi es mzad iyo gamosayeneblad SeniSvna: imis gamo, rom aSS programa jer kidev saidumloebiTaa moculi, xemoTxsenebuli xuTi paTogenidan ori jer kidev araa sazogadoebisaTvis cnobili. gasagebiia, rom albaT yvela maTgani iyo mcenareuli sokovani paTogeni – isini, romlebic swrafad vrceldeba, da Tuki pirobebi xelsayrelia, SeiZleba erti sezonis manZilze epidemiac ki gamoiwvios. SerCeulma agentebma daaziana msoflios umniSvnelovanesi sakvebi da sasaqonlo kulturebi. kvlevebi Catarda baqteriebis gamoyenebis SesaZleblobazec; da, Sesabamisad, zogierTi mcenareuli virusis gamoyenebazec.

16. aSS-s saqmianobis aspeqtebi – samizneebi “1950ian wlebSi aSS-s SesaZleblobebi Sefasebuli iyo, rogorc strategiuli upiratesoba, da aseve rogorc yofili sabWoTa kavSirisa da CineTis mxridan komunisturi agresiis mogeriebis unari. ssrk-sTan mimarTebaSi erT angariSSi aRniSnuli iyo, rom erTi saxeobis sakvebi metad dazaraldeba, Tuki xorbalze Seteva warmatebuli iqneba…” meore aRniSnavda, rom “CineTis kontinenti gansakuTrebiT mowylvadi Cans brinjis sawinaaRmdego saomari saSualebebis mimarT…” SeniSvna: aSS-s SesaZleblobebi Sefasebuli iyo, rogorc Zalian strategiuli da agresiis mogeriebis unari. amgram, Tu gaviTvaliswinebT SeteviT SesaZleblobebs, 21-e saukuneSi saomari saSualebebis es forma unda ganvixiloT, rogorc saSualeba ganviTarebuli qveynebis winaaRmdeg, sadac monokulturebis didi warmoebaa; da ganviTarebadi qveynebis winaaRmdeg, romelTa mcenareTa paTologiis samsaxuri cudad muSaobs, isini damokidebuli arian sakvebis Sida bazarze, da sadac araendemuri paTogenuri Stamebi iqna Setanili.

17. sabWoTa programa (i) “sazogadod sjeraT, rom sabWoTa kavSirs hqonda yvela qveyanaze ufro farTo, yvelaze aqtiuri biologiuri iaraRis programa. Zalian gasaidumloebuli programa, romelic gafarTovda sabWoTa komunisturi partiis centraluri komitetis 1973 wlis gadawyvetilebis safuZvelze, gagrzelda sul cota 1992 wlis 6 martamde…. programa moicavda taqtikuri da strategiuli bi sistemebis SemuSavebasa da ganawilebas. fiqroben, rom am programaSi CarTuli iyo daaxloebiT … 25,000-dan 60,000-mde adamiani…” SeniSvna: jer kidev ar arsebobs mTeli sabWoTa programis oficialuri kvlevis monacemebi xelmisawvdom literaturaSi. es cifrebi aRebulia jon hartis Tavidan programaSi momakvdinebeli kulturebi (John Hart, Deadly Cultures). Ref: Cited at p. 132 in Hart, J. (2006) ‘The Soviet Biological Weapons Program’, In: Mark Wheelis, M., Rózsa, L., and Dando, M. R. (Eds.), (2006) Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 132-156.

18. sabWoTa programa (ii) “oci wlis manZilze…. Cveni faruli programebis saSualebiT, aSS-sa da misi dasavleli mokavSireebis sawinaaRmdegod Cven davagroveT asobiT tona jilexi da aTobiT tona Savi Wiri da yvavili moskovis maxloblad da ruseTis sxva adgilebSi.” “is, Tu ra xdeboda biopreparatis laboratoriebSi, aris civi omis yvelaze didi saidumlo.” SeniSvna: Cvens xelT aris Ria literatura – zogi adamiani avtobiografiuli Canawerebi, vinc a,m programaze muSaobda. es citatebi motanilia ken alibekis wignidan “biologiuri safrTxe”. meore, nakleb cnobili wigni aris ivor domaradskiswigni “biologiuri meomari”. ra Tqma unda, aucilebelia amgvar literaturas erTgvari sifrTxiliT movekidoT, magram is, rom arsebobda masobrivi programa, ueWvelad sworia. Ref: Domaradskij, I. V., and Orent, W. (2003) Biowarrior: Inside the Soviet/Russian Biological War Machine, New York: Prometheus Books. Alibek, K., and Handelman, S. (1999) Biohazard: The chilling True Story of the largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. New York: Delta

19. sabWoTa programa (iii) Savi Wiri “…sabWoTa mecnierebs SeeZloT ewarmoebinaT agentis didi raodenoba, romelic SemdgomSi SeiZleboda iaraRSi moeTavsebinaT.yofil sabWoTa kavSirSi Sav Wirze muSaobda aTze meti instituti da aTasobiT adamiani…” “…fiqroben, rom rusma mecnierebma Seqmnes mravali wamlis mimarT rezistentuli Y pestis, magram ar arsebobs amis damadasturebeli samecniero publikacia. SeniSvna: aSS-s programa xorcieldeboda civi omis pirvel naxevarSi. Zalian gafarToebuli sabWoTa programa xorcieldeboda civi omis meore naxevarSi. is sakmaod gansxvavdeboda aSS programisagan. aq xdrboda infeqciuri agentis iaraRad gakeTeba da varaudoben, rom maTze genetikuri manipulaciebi xorcieldeboda. citata aRebulia statiidan “Savi Wiri, rogorc biologiuri iaraRi” (JAMA, vol 283, no 17, 2281 – 2290). mogvianebiT ix. agreTve pomerancevis statia “cereolizinis AB genebis eqspresia Bacillus anthracis….vaqcinaSi, (Pomerantsev, A.P. et al (1997) vol 15, no 17/18 1846 -1850) da Borzenkov, V.M. et al (1993) Additive synthesis of regulatory peptide in vivo: the introduction of the vaccine strain of Francisella tularensis producing Beta-Endorphin. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, vol 116, no 8, 942 – 944.Both of these papers seem to have caused concern in the West.

20. sabWoTa programa (iv) “…yofili sabWoTa kavSiri… awarmoebda marburgis, ebolas, lasas, da axali samyaros arenavirusebis did raodenobas….sabWoTa mkvlevarebi iTvlidnen marburgis virusis aerozolis infeqciurobas mainumebSi, da gansazRvres, rom mxolod ramodenime virionia saWiro, rom infeqcia gamoiwvio…. argumentebi, rom efeqturi antivirusuli mkurnalobisa da vaqcinebis ararseboba Zalian momakvdinebelia kacobriobisaTvis, istoriul CanawerebSi ar moipoveba.” SeniSvna: es citata aRebulia statiidan “hemoragiuli cxelebis virusebi, rogorc biologiuri iaraRi” (‘Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses as Biological Weapons’in JAMA, vol 287, no 18, 2391 -2405). SesaZlebelia vivaraudoT, rom istoriuli Canawerebi gviCvenebs warmatebul SeteviT biologiuri iaraRis programas, rogorc sasicocxlo mecnierebis wvlils iararis ganviTarebaSi.

sanimuSo kiTxvebi 1. gamoxateT aSS biologiuri saomari saSualebebis programa sami dekadis manZilze biologiuri da toqsiuri iaraRis konvenciis miRebamde 1972 wels. Seicvala Tu ara biologiuri iaraRis gamoyeneba am droisaTvis? 2. rogor SeuZlia aSS-s gamoiyenos mcenareebis sinTeturi bioregulatori – agenti narinjisferi – vietnamSi, da rogori momavali eqneba biologiur saomar saSualebebs? 3. ra kritikuli samecniero da iuridiuli gansxvavebebia aSS da yofil sabWoTa biologiuri saomari saSualebebis programebSi civi omis periodSi? 4. imsjeleT risi gakeTebaa kidev saWiro TavdacviTi zomebis gasaumjobeseblad im ori agentis winaaRmdeg, romlisganac biolofiuri saomari saSualebebi agkeTda me-20 saukuneSi.

wyaroebi (slaidi 1) Mark Wheelis, M., Rózsa, L., and Dando, M. R. (Eds.), (2006) Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (slaidi 2) Avery, D (1999) ‘Canadian biological and toxin warfare research, development and planning, 1925–45’, In Geissler, E., and van Courtland Moon, J. (Eds.) Biological and Toxin Weapons Research, Development and Use from the Middle Ages to 1945 (SIPRI Chemical & Biological Warfare Studies No. 18). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 190-213

(slaidi 3) Arnon, S. S., Schecter, R., Inglesby, T. V., Henderson. D. A., Bartlett, J. G., Ascher. M. S., Eitzen, E. M. Jr., Fine, A. D., Hauer, J., Layton, M., Lillibridge, S., Osterholm, M. T., Toole, T. O’., Parker, G., Perl, T. M., Russel, P. K., Swerdlow, D. L., and Tonat, K. (2001) ‘Botulinum Toxin as a Biological Weapon: Medical and Public Health Management’, JAMA 285(8), pp. 1059-1070 (slaidi 4) Laughlin L.L., (1977) U.S. Army Activity in the U.S. Biological Warfare Programs, Volume 1, p. 4-2. Cited in Simon Whitby (2001) ‘The Potential Use of Plant Pathogens against Crops’, Microbes and Infection, 3. pp. 73-80

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