1 Environmental Philosophy, Ethics, and Science

2 Outline Introduction Ethical Principles Religious and Cultural Perspectives Environmental Justice Science as a Way of Knowing  Scientific Design  Modeling and Natural Experiments  Paradigms and Scientific Consensus

3 INTRODUCTION Ethics is a branch of philosophy:  Morals: Distinction between right and wrong.  Values: Ultimate worth of actions or things. Environmental ethics deals with the moral relationships between humans and the surrounding world.

4 Ethical Principles Universalists - Assert fundamental principles of ethics are universal, unchanging, and eternal.  Plato Relativists - Claim moral principles are always relative to a particular person, society, or situation.  Nietzsche

5 Ethical Principles Nihilists - Claim morality is arbitrary thus there is no reason to behave morally.  Schopenhauer Utilitarians - Believe an action is right that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.  Bentham and Mill

6 Values, Rights, and Obligations Moral Agents - Beings capable of acting morally or immorally, and who can accept responsibility for their acts.  Humans Moral Subjects - Beings who are not moral agents, but who have moral interests and can be treated rightly or wrongly.  Children Moral Extensionism - Widening definition of who is considered ethically significant.  Animal Rights

7 Intrinsic and Instrumental Value Intrinsic (Inherent - Innate) - Worth or value simply because of existence.  Humans Instrumental (Conferred) - Worth or value only because they are valued by someone who matters.  Tools

8 Religious and Cultural Perspectives Biocentricism - All living things have intrinsic value. Anthropocentric - Human-centered.  Genesis 1:28 Stewardship - Custodian of resources.  Indigenous peoples

9 Ecofeminism Ecofeminists argue most philosophers came from a patriarchal system based on domination and duality.  Contend domination, exploitation, and mistreatment of women, children, minorities, and nature are intimately connected and mutually reinforcing.

10 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Environmental Justice combines civil rights and environmental protection to demand a safe, healthy environment for all people.  People of color around the world are subjected to a disproportionately high level of environmental health risks.

11 Environmental Justice Toxic Colonialism - Targeting poor communities of color in poor areas / countries for waste disposal and / or experimentation.  Native American Reservations  Moving operations to countries where environmental regulations are lax.

12 SCIENCE AS A WAY OF KNOWING Science - Depends on making precise observations of natural phenomena and on formulating rational theories to make sense of those observations.  Assumes the world is knowable, and that systematic investigations can yield meaningful insights.

13 Science Deductive Reasoning - Starts with a general principle and proceeds to a specific case. Inductive Reasoning - General principles are inferred from examination of specific cases.

14 Scientific Design Reproducibility is a key test of any data set.  Controlled Studies - All variables controlled except for one.  Blind Experiment - Researchers, (or researchers and participants in a double-blind) do not know who is receiving the experimental or control treatments until after the experiment is completed.

15 Hypothesis and Theories Hypothesis - A provisional explanation that can be falsified by further investigation.  When tests support hypothesis, it is only considered provisionally true. Scientific Theory - Hypothesis supported by multiple experiments and a majority of experts.  Not casual everyday “theory”.

16 Modeling and Natural Experiments Natural Experiments - Ideas and explanations tested indirectly by looking at historical evidence or natural experiments. Models - Use of a substitute organism, a physical mock-up, or a set of mathematical equations that simulates a real system.

17 Statistics and Probability Quantitative data can be precise, easily compared, and provide good benchmarks to measure change.  Statistical analysis can be used to calculate a margin of error and confidence levels.  Probability is a measure and prediction of the likelihood of an event.

18 Scientific Investigation

19 Intuition and Inspiration Human factors such as creativity, insight, aesthetics, and luck play definite roles in scientific research.

20 Paradigms Most research is based on commonly shared paradigms - models that provide a framework for interpreting results.  Eventually, anomalies and contradictions of paradigms arise and build. - Typically new generations of scholars challenge old paradigms and formulate new hypotheses and theories leading to new paradigms.

21 Pseudoscience A common tactic in combating scientific evidence is to use scientific uncertainty as a an excuse to postpone or reverse an action supported by the current scientific evidence.

22 Summary Introduction Ethical Principles Religious and Cultural Perspectives Environmental Justice Science as a Way of Knowing  Scientific Design  Modeling and Natural Experiments  Paradigms and Scientific Consensus

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