1. Frameworks for Understanding: Science, Systems, and Ethics

2. Outline
What is Science?
Cooperation and Consensus in Science
Systems
Environmental Ethics and World Views
Religious and Cultural Perspectives
Environmental Justice

3. WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Science is:
a methodical, logical process for producing knowledge about natural phenomena.
a cumulative body of knowledge produced by scientists.
based on careful observation and hypothesis testing

5. Science Depends on Skepticism and Accuracy
Ideally scientists are skeptical and unbiased.
Scientists strive for:
accuracy - correctness of measurements
precision - repeatability of results

7. Deductive & Inductive Reasoning
deductive reasoning - logical reasoning from general to specific
inductive reasoning - reasoning from many observations to produce a general rule
It is also important to recognize the role of insight, creativity, aesthetics, and luck in research.

8. Hypotheses and Theories
hypothesis - a testable explanation
scientific theory - a description or explanation that has been supported by a large number of tests and is considered by experts to be reliable

9. Probability
Probability is a measure of how likely something is to occur.
Scientists often increase confidence in a study by comparing results to a random sample or a larger group.

10. Statistics
Many statistical tests focus on calculating the probability that observed results could have occurred by chance.
Usually ecological tests are considered significant if this probability is less than 5%.

11. Experimental Design
natural experiment - involves observation of events that have already happened
manipulative experiment - conditions are deliberately altered and all other variables are held constant
controlled study - comparing a treatment group to a control group
blind experiment - researcher doesn’t know which group is treated until after the data have been analyzed
double-blind experiment - neither the subject nor the researcher knows who is in the treatment group

12. Variables
Dependent variables (Y axis) are affected by independent variables (X axis).

13. Models
Models are simple representations of phenomena.
They allow scientists to study complex systems and predict the effect of conditions that are too difficult to create and control.
When multiple models agree, scientists gain confidence.

14. COOPERATION AND CONCENSUS
Scientific concensus (general agreement among informed scholars) stems from a community of scientists who collaborate in a cummulative, self-correcting process.
Paradigm shifts (great changes in explanatory frameworks) occur when a majority of scientists agree that an old explanation no longer works very well.

15. Critical Thinking

16. Environmental Science vs. Environmentalism
environmental science - use of scientific method to study processes and systems in the environment
environmentalism - working to influence attitudes and policies that affect our environment

17. SYSTEMS
systems - networks of interactions among many interdependent factors
open - take inputs of energy or material from outside the system
closed - no inputs from outside
examples: ecosystems, climates systems, geologic systems, economic systems

19. System Characteristics
positive feedback loop - when a flow leads to compartment changes that further enhance the flow
negative feedback loop - dampens flow
equilibrium - dynamic state in which system is changing little over time (homeostasis)
disturbance - periodic destructive events
resilience - ability of system to recover from disturbance
emergent properties - characteristics of system that are more than the sum of the system’s parts (example: The human system exhibits emotion, creativity, humor, etc.)

20. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS & WORLD VIEWS
Ethics is a branch of philosophy:
morals - distinction between right and wrong
values - ultimate worth of actions or things
Environmental ethics deals with the moral relationships between humans and the surrounding world.

21. anthropocentric - human-centered
utilitarian - believe an action is right that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people
biocentricism - all living things have intrinsic value
preservationist - nature should be protected for its own sake
stewardship - custodian of resources

22. Moral Value
moral extensionism - widening definition of who is considered ethically significant
animal rights

23. Intrinsic or Instrumental Value
intrinsic (inherent, innate) - worth or value simply because of existence
humans
instrumental (conferred) - worth or value only because they are valued by someone who matters
tools

24. Ecofeminism
Ecofeminists argue most philosophers came from a patriarchal system based on domination and duality.
Contend domination, exploitation, and mistreatment of women, children, minorities, and nature are intimately connected and mutually reinforcing.
Promotes justice and cooperation.

25. Religious and Cultural Perspectives

26. ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE
environmental racism - People of color around the world are subjected to a disproportionately high level of environmental health risks.
environmental justice combines civil rights and environmental protection to demand a safe, healthy environment for all people.

28. Dumping Across Borders
toxic colonialism - targeting poor communities of color for waste disposal and experimentation
native American reservations
third and fourth world countries
moving operations to countries where environmental regulations are lax

29. Outline
What is Science?
Cooperation and Consensus in Science
Systems
Environmental Ethics and World Views
Religious and Cultural Perspectives
Environmental Justice