1. Chapter 02 Lecture Outline*
William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota
Mary Ann Cunningham Vassar College
*See PowerPoint Image Slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.
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2. Frameworks for Understanding: Science, Systems, and Ethics

3. Outline What is Science? Cooperation and Consensus in Science Systems
Environmental Ethics and World Views
Religious and Cultural Perspectives
Environmental Justice

4. What is Science? Science is:
a methodical, logical process for producing knowledge about natural phenomena
a cumulative body of knowledge produced by scientists
a process based on careful observation
and hypothesis testing

6. Science Depends on Skepticism and Accuracy
Ideally scientists are skeptical and unbiased.
Scientists strive for:
accuracy - correctness of measurements
reproducibility - repeatability of results
Repeating studies or tests is called replication.

8. Deductive & Inductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning - logical reasoning from general to specific
Inductive reasoning - reasoning from many observations to produce a general rule
It is also important to recognize the role of insight, creativity, aesthetics, and luck in research.

9. Hypotheses and Theories
Hypothesis - a testable explanation
Scientific theory - a description or explanation that has been supported by a large number of tests and is considered by experts to be reliable

10. Probability Probability is a measure of how likely something
is to occur.
Scientists often increase confidence in a study by comparing results to a random sample or a larger group.

11. Statistics
Many statistical tests focus on calculating the probability that observed results could have occurred by chance.
Usually ecological tests are considered significant if this probability is less than 5%.
The amount of confidence scientists have in the results depends upon the sample size as well. A large sample size is better than a small sample.

12. Experimental Design
Natural experiment - involves observation of events that have already happened
Manipulative experiment - conditions are deliberately altered for one variable and all other variables are held constant
Controlled study - comparing a treatment group to a control group which has not received the treatment
Blind experiment - researcher doesn’t know which group has been treated until after the data have been analyzed
Double-blind experiment - neither the subject nor the researcher knows who is in the treatment group

13. Variables
In each study there is one dependent variable and one or more independent variables.
The dependent variable is affected by what happens to the independent variable.
In a graph, the dependent variable is on the vertical (Y) axis and the independent variable is on the horizontal axis (X).

14. Models
Models are simple representations of phenomena. They can be physical models, model organisms, mathematical models, or other types of models.
They allow scientists to study complex systems and predict the effect of conditions that are too difficult to create and control.
When multiple models agree, scientists gain confidence.

15. Consensus and Conflict
Scientific consensus (general agreement among informed scholars) stems from a community of scientists who collaborate in a cumulative, self-correcting process.
Paradigm shifts (great changes in explanatory frameworks) occur when a majority of scientists agree that an old explanation no longer works very well.

16. Critical Thinking

17. Environmental Science vs. Environmentalism
Environmental science - use of scientific method to study processes and systems in the environment
Environmentalism - working to influence attitudes and policies that affect our environment

18. Systems
Systems - networks of interactions among many interdependent factors
Examples: ecosystems, climates systems, geologic systems, economic systems
Systems are composed of processes. We can think of them in terms of flows and storage compartments. Example: Fish tank

20. System Characteristics
Positive feedback loop - when a flow leads to compartment changes that further enhance the flow
Negative feedback loop - dampens flow
Equilibrium - dynamic state in which system is changing little over time (homeostasis)
Disturbance - periodic destructive events such as fire or flood
Resilience - ability of system to recover quickly from disturbance

21. System Characteristics
System can be closed or open.
Closed - self contained and receives no inputs of energy or materials from the outside
Open - system that takes inputs from its surroundings
Emergent properties - characteristics of a whole, functioning system that are quantitatively or qualitatively greater than the sum of the system’s parts
Example: The human body is a system of flows and compartments but from that system emerge emotions, ideas, painting, dance, etc.

22. Environmental Ethics & World Views
Ethics is a branch of philosophy concerned with what actions are right and wrong.
Environmental ethics deals with our moral obligations to the world around us.
Worldviews - sets of basic beliefs, images and understandings that shape how we see the world around us. Worldviews also determine what questions are valid to ask.

23. Who or What has Moral Value?
Moral extensionism - extending moral values to others
Should moral extensionism include granting some degree of moral value to animals, plants and the environment?
Value - a measure of the worth of something
Inherent value - intrinsic or innate worth
Instrumental value - items have worth only because they are valued by another person

25. Ecofeminism
Ecofeminists argue most philosophers came from a patriarchal system based on domination and superiority.
Contend domination, exploitation, and mistreatment of women, children, minorities, and nature are intimately connected and mutually reinforcing
Argue that we need more cooperation with both nature and other people to achieve a peaceful, sustainable society

26. Faith-Based Conservation
Stewardship - taking care of the resources we are given
Calls for environmental stewardship and for human domination of the environment can be found in the writings of most major faiths. Which of these ideas is emphasized has varied throughout human history.
In 1995, representatives of 9 major faiths met in Ohito, Japan to outline common beliefs and responsibilities towards protecting the Earth.

27. Religious and Cultural Perspectives

28. Environmental Justice
Environmental justice combines civil rights with environmental protection to demand a safe, healthy environment for everyone.
Poor and minorities often live in polluted neighborhoods.
Environmental racism is inequitable distribution of environmental hazards based on race. Example: Lead poisoning in children
Toxic colonialism is the practice of targeting poor communities or communities of color in developing nations as waste disposal areas.