Building Blocks of Scientific Research Chapter 5 References:  Business Research (Duane Davis)  Business Research Methods (Cooper/Schindler) Resource Person : Furqan-ul-haq Siddiqui

of Scientific Research Critical concepts (terminologies) which must be understood to enter in the world of research. These are the building blocks upon which building of research is laid down.  Axiom  Observation  Facts  Construct  Concept  Operational Definition  Deduction  Induction  Hypothesis  Variable

Axiom  A self-evident and necessary truth, or a proposition whose truth is so evident as first sight that no reasoning or demonstration can make it plainer; a proposition which it is necessary to take for granted.  As classically conceived, an axiom is a premise so evident as to be accepted as true without controversy.  a universally established principle or law that is not a ne cessary truth.  Proof of axiom may not be possible by research.

Observation Observations are our perception of reality & experimental in nature. Observation is the activity of a living being (such as a human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific instruments. Facts The word fact can refer to verified information about past or present circumstances or events which are presented as objective reality. In science, it means a provable concept.

Construct A construct is an image or idea which is under consideration for research purpose. Constructs are built by combining more concrete concepts, especially when the idea or image we invented to convey is not subject to direct observation. The construct is a proposed attribute of a person that often cannot be measured directly, but can be assessed using a number of indicators or manifest variables. Broad concepts or topics of study Eg. When a researcher aims to research on terms e.g. morale, satisfaction, learning, motivation etc.

Conceptual Definition (Theoretical or Academic definition) A concept is generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain objects, conditions, situations and behavior. It answers the question “What does it mean?”  The concept may change from discipline to discipline, place to place, things to things, idea to idea. Operational Definition An operational definition is simply how a researcher decides to measure (and thus define) a construct. It answers the question “How to measure it?” concrete representation of a construct; a way of counting & measuring something by a researcher as per his convenience.

Variable When we operationalize a concept, we are creating VARIABLES! Definition: Any characteristic that varies (meaning it must have at least two values)  Any event, situation, behavior, or individual characteristic that varies.  Research questions and hypotheses consist of x and y variables:  Is X related to Y?  Is studying related to school performance?

Independent vs. Dependent Variables Independent variable (IV)– the “x” variable  Considered the “cause” of a behavior (the DV)  Variable that is manipulated in experimental design  The predictor variable in an observational/correlational study Dependent variable (DV)– the “y” variable  The variable that is the “effect”  The “outcome” or “response” variable  The outcome variable in an observational/correlational study

Hypothesis A hypothesis is a statement that is empirically testable. It is an empirical statement concerned with the relationship among variables.  Hypothesis may have; a. Specific Acceptance- We took 60 years data of Pakistan and proved that as inflation increases, unemployment decreases. b. Generalizes Acceptance- If the hypothesis is accepted in many cases than it becomes a theory. c. Universal Acceptance- If accepted every where than it becomes reality or Law (Law of Nature).

Ways of Communication/Reasoning Ways of conveying meaning Argument: Argument allow us to explain, interpret, defend, challenge or explore meaning. Specially used when a statement gives different meaning to different people, in order to support/prove our statement we take help of arguments.  In Research two types of arguments are used 1. Deduction (deductive reasoning) 2. Induction (Inductive reasoning)

Deduction The logical process of reasoning by which a specific conclusion is derived from something which is known to be true or from a known premises (Premises are previous statements from which another is derived).  The conclusion must fallow a reason, and the reason must be from real world, or agreed by real world (true & Valid).  Deductive techniques of formal logic always leads from the general to the particular and never vice versa.

True and Valid Deduction True and Valid  We believe that every word of Holly Quran is 100% true.  In the Quran it is written that the world was created in 7 days. Therefore the statement that the world was created in 7 days is true.

 All managers need information to make decisions.  Mr. Ali is a decision maker Mr. Ali needs information to make decisions  All high performers managers are highly proficient.  Khalid is a high performer Khalid is a high proficient  At IMS cheating in exams is strictly not allowed.  I am a student of IMS I don't cheat in exams If T is larger than C, and If C is larger than W, then T is larger than W.

We draw a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidences. Induction is the process of reasoning from the particular to the general as opposed to the inverse process of deduction. The basis of induction is the assumption that if something is true in a number of observed instances, it is also true in similar, but unobserved, instances. Induction is ‘the inference of a general law from particular instances’ & Deduction is ‘the inferring of particular instances from a general law Induction

 Suppose a stock broker with 15 years of experience concludes that the prices of shares decrease when there is terrorism & political instability in country. Therefore he induces that stock prices are related with political stability.  A firm spends One Million Rupees on promotion campaign but sales don’t increase, Why? One answer may be a conclusion that campaign was poorly executed. This is a induction because we know from experience that sales go up by promotion & if promotion is poor sales don’t increase. The tentative explanation why sales not increase is hypothesis (which may prove right or wrong after research) Truth In

Combining Deduction & Induction Induction occurs when we observe a fact & ask, “Why is this?” In answer to this Question, we give a tentative explanation called “ hypothesis”. The hypothesis is reasonable if it explains the event or condition (fact). Deduction is the process by which we test weather the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact or not.  Thus Theory construction is often the result of Deduction & Induction. Our Experiences lead us to draw conclusions that then we try to verify by using scientific method.

We promote a Product But sales do not increase If we run an effective Promotion then sale increases Hypothesis: The promotion campaign Was poorly executed. Induction Why? Deduction: Ineffective promotion will not increase sale Deduction: Effective promotion will increase sales. Why didn’t Sale Increase