Ch. 2 Sociological Investigation

Why Is Sociological Research Necessary? Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behaviour through research Results in a body of information that helps us move beyond guesswork and commonsense in understanding society.

Ways of knowing the world…. Personal: We discover for ourselves the things we know. Tradition: People hold to a belief because everyone knows it to be true. Authority: Experts tell us that something is true. Religion: We accept the truths that our scriptures or religious officials advocate. Media: Accept reports as “true” even if we know some sources better than others – media has bias Science: We know what is true based on controlled, systematic observation.

Science and sociological theory Science creates and supports theory: a statement that provides an explanation of a natural or social phenomenon based on well-documented evidence. A theory must include the following criteria: tested by experimentation and observation of the natural world. is falsifiable (i.e. experiments must exist that could prove it false). cannot be proven, only confirmed or disconfirmed. subject to revision and change.

Three main types of research… Scientific sociology (structural functionalism) Systematic observation of social behaviour using empirical evidence Interpretive sociology (symbolic interaction) Describing and interpreting social behaviour in depth Critical sociology (social conflict) Finding and using strategies to promote social change

Scientific Sociology Scientific explanations differ from other ways of knowing because they enable scientists to resolve differences in understanding the world. More difficult in the social world. Science uses an empirical approach to answer questions through a systematic collection and analysis of data Sociologists use methods like surveys, experiments etc. and employ quantitative analysis to understand the world “scientifically”

Principles of Scientific Sociology Concept: a abstract mental construct that represents part of the world in a simplified form Variable: a concept whose values change from case to case: a concept that can “vary” and be measured Measurement: a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case Defining concepts and operationalizing a variable: Specifying what one intends to measure in assigning a value to a variable Reliability: consistency in measurement Validity: measuring what one intends to measure

Relationships among variables Stated as hypotheses and theories Cause and effect A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another Types of variables Independent: the variable that causes the change Dependent: the variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)

Correlation and causation A relationship in which two or more variables change together Spurious Correlation: An apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable – use “control” to investigate Conditions for causality Existence of a correlation or association Independent variable precedes dependent variable Non-spurious

Limitations of scientific sociology The “ideal of objectivity” Can social scientists be “value-neutral”? Max Weber said not possible but can aim to be value-free through recognition of personal bias Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied Social patterns change Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult

Interpretive and critical sociology Collect qualitative data in the real world Reality is socially constructed Can also be seen as “empirical” Data are systematically analyzed and then interpreted/questioned Methods include interviewing, observation or deconstruction More subjective than scientific sociology but no less valid Critical sociology aims to correct inequality but political overtones can create an agenda

Limitations in Sociological Research The Problem of Gender in Research: Androcentricity/Gynocentricity: Approaching a topic from a male-only or female-only perspective Overgeneralization: Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes Gender blindness: The failure to consider the impact of gender at all Double standards: Using different standards to judge males and females Interference: a subject under study reacts to the sex of the researcher

Other limitations and problems in research Problem of working with human subjects Research motivated by ideology or blame “blame analysis” Overgeneralization Selective observation Premature closure of inquiry Halo effect: overall impression of a person influences the observer's findings Control: not same as in the natural sciences Hawthorne effect (esp. in experiments)

Other cont. The HALO EFFECT The HAWTHORNE EFFECT Edward Thorndike 1874-1949 Influence of impressions The HAWTHORNE EFFECT Elton Mayo 1880-1949 change in behaviour caused by awareness of being studied

Overcoming Bias: “Bracketing” First, make a list of your characteristics: 1. your gender; 2. your age; 3. your ethnic or national identification; 4. your religion or philosophy of life; 5. your political party or orientation; 6. your favourite psychological theory. Add four more characteristics: words or phrases that are descriptive of you as an individual.

Bracketing (cont.) 1. List ways in which your characteristics might bias you in your efforts at research interviewing. 2. Then write how you might counteract these biases. 3. And then write how these efforts to counteract your biases might themselves lead to other biases!

Replication and Triangulation Replication of research by other scientists Creates greater reliability of results Triangulation Use multiple methods, researchers, data and/or theories to create fuller body of sociological knowledge Increases validity Triangulation seen as key to creating good, valid and reliable knowledge of the world around us

Summary (from Macionis and Gerber)

Dimensions of Sociological Research A. Style of Research Exploratory: to gain new knowledge Descriptive: attempt to describe social reality Explanatory: explain cause and effect relationships B. Purpose or Focus of Research Basic: to add to existing body of knowledge Applied: to solve a perceived societal problem C. Time Frame Cross-sectional studies Longitudinal studies D. Data Collection Technique Quantitative (numbers) Qualitative (words)

Quantitative and Qualitative Orientations Meaningfully expressed by numbers Provides counts and measures Qualitative Meanings, concepts, and definitions Assessed through words, images, and description

Theory and Research Cycle A theory is a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social phenomena Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one. The theory and research cycle consists of deductive and inductive approaches. deductive: from theory to research observations inductive: from observations to theory creation

Inductive and Deductive Inductive logical thought Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theory Induction “increases” from specific to general Deductive logical thought Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing Deduction “decreases” from general to specific

The Wheel of Research

Research Methods For Collecting Data Research methods are strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research Methods are chosen according to whom we wish to study and what we wish to learn

Quantitative research methods Surveys: polls in which researchers gather facts or attempt to determine the relationship between facts. Survey data are collected by using self-administered questionnaires, personal interviews, and/or telephone surveys. Respondents are persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary analysis (i.e. a content or historical analysis) of existing data, researchers use existing material and analyze data that originally was collected by others. Experiments are carefully designed situations in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behaviour.

Qualitative Research Methods Field research: study of social life in its natural setting: observe and interview people where they live, work, play. Case study: an in-depth, multifaceted investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping. Often involves more than one method, such as participant observation, unstructured or in-depth interviews, and life histories. Unstructured interview: extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. Used in Field Research and Oral Histories. Feminist Research Methods: Feminist researchers use the same methods, but in a different way women-centred. provide explanations that will help women improve their situation.

Multiple Methods Many sociologists use triangulation and use of multiple approaches in a single study. Often both quantitative and qualitative techniques used.

Research Ethics The study of people (human subjects) raises vital questions about ethical concerns in sociological research. The Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association (CSAA) has a Code of Ethics that sets forth certain basic standards sociologists must follow in conducting research SILLY VIDEO (computer generated) on research ethics in sociology

Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans The Research Ethics Framework: “Norms for the ethics of research involving human subjects are developed and refined within an ever-evolving societal context, elements of which include the need for research and the research community, moral imperatives and ethical principles, and the law.” From http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/english/pdf/TCPS%20October%202005_E.pdf

Guiding Ethical Principles Respect for Human Dignity Respect for Free and Informed Consent Respect for Vulnerable Persons Respect for Privacy and Confidentiality Respect for Justice and Inclusiveness Balancing Harms and Benefits Minimizing Harm Maximizing Benefit

Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation Select and define topic Review the literature Develop key questions to ask Assess requirements for study Consider ethical issues

Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation Select a research methodology Collect the data Interpret the findings State conclusions Publish the findings