1. Principles of Sociology SOC-201
Unit 2 – Science and Methods in Sociology

2. Scientific Sociology How Theory and Research Work Together
Without research to back it up, a theory will remain an abstract concept with little value
Without theory, research is simply a collection of meaningless facts
Every theory must be tested with research and findings need to be explained
To test their theories, sociologists conduct research
They rely on scientific method to investigate how and why people behave the way they do
Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence
Sociological research often reveals that what we accept as “common sense” is not entirely true

3. Concepts, Variables, and Measurements
A mental construct that represents some aspect of the world in a simplified form
Examples: family, gender, race, social class
Variable
A concept whose values changes from case to case
Examples: price, economic classes (upper class, lower class)
Measurement
A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Researcher must specify exactly what they are measuring in each case

4. Concepts, Variables, and Measurements
Descriptive Statistics
Sociologists need to employ statistics to state what the “average” is for a large population
Mean - Arithmetic average of all measures
Median – The middle score that divides the distribution in half
Mode – The single score that appears most often
With measurements, you also need reliability and validity
Reliability – The consistency of the measure
Must yield the same results each time it is measured
Validity – The precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure

5. Cause and Effect

6. Correlation and Cause
How do we determine that the variables are related?
Correlation
A relationship by which two or more variables change together
But we want to know not just the how but the why
Cause and Effect
A relationship in which we know that change in one variable causes change in another
It allows researchers to predict how one pattern of behavior will affect another

7. Correlation and Cause Types of variables Spurious Correlation
Independent – The causal factor
Dependent – The effect
Spurious Correlation
When two variables change together but neither one caused the other to change
Usually results from a third factor

8. Correlation and Cause A true cause and effect relationship must show:
That the two variables are correlated
That the independent variable precedes the dependent in time
There is no evidence that the correlation is spurious
Ideal of Objectivity
This is allowing the facts to speak for themselves
Try not to filtering them through the personal values and biases of the researcher
However, total neutrality is impossible

9. Research and Gender

10. Research and Gender There are a five problems involving gender:
Androcentricity
“Male Centered”
Ignoring what women do
Overgeneralizing
Using a small segment to represent the population as a whole
For example, using only males in studies
Gender Blindness
Failing to consider gender at all
Double Standards
Interference
Where a subject sees the researcher as a woman instead of a researcher

11. Research and Gender Feminist Research
Sociology focused mainly on men in the past
This new focus allows research to focus mainly on women
It looks at the social standing of women, guided by the assumption that women experience subordination
There is no single feminist strategy

12. Research Models

13. Research Model Eight steps involved in scientific research:
Selecting a Topic
What do you want to learn more about?
Defining the Problem
Narrow the topic to focus on a specific area
Reviewing the Literature
To make sure what you want to study has not already been studied
Formulating a Hypothesis –
Hypothesis is a statement of how variables are expected to be related to one another, often according to predictions from a theory
Variables are factors that vary or change from one person or situation to another
Your hypothesis will need operational definitions, which are precise ways to measure the variables

14. Research Model Choosing a Research Model Collecting the Data
The means by which you collect your data
Sociologists use six basic research methods
Collecting the Data
When you gather data, you must take care to assure its validity and its reliability
Analyzing the Results
This is why you test your hypothesis
Sharing the Results
Publish a report with your findings to the scientific community

15. Research Methods

16. Research Methods
There are many different types of research methods that sociologists use as systematic plans for conducting research
What you use depends on the questions you want to answer
Qualitative Analysis
This measurement deals with descriptions, where the data can be observed but not measured
Quantitative Analysis
This measurement deals with numbers, where the data can be measured

17. Research Method - Experiment
It is a research method used to investigate cause and effect relationships under highly controlled conditions
Specifically used to test a hypothesis
This is an unverified statement of a relationships between two or mor variables
Gathering Evidence
Measure the dependent variable (the “effect”)
Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable
Measure the dependent variable again to see what, if any, changes took place

18. Research Method - Experiment
Applications
For explanatory research that specifies the relationships among variables
Generates quantitative data
Advantages
Provides the greatest ability to specify cause and effect
Replication is very easy
Limitation
Control is easiest in a laboratory but those have an artificial quality
Unless the environment is carefully controlled, results may be biased

19. Research Methods - Survey
Subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview
How to do a survey:
Select a sample of the population
Sample – A selection of the population intended to represent the population to be studied
Select the type of questions to be used
Questions should always be neutral to prevent bias
Closed-Ended Questions
Open-Ended Questions

20. Research Methods - Survey
Applications:
Gathering information that cannot be directly observed (values, beliefs, attitudes)
It is useful for descriptive and explanatory research
It generates quantitative or qualitative data
Advantages
Sampling allows surveys of large populations using questionnaires
Interviews provide in-depth responses
Limitations
Questionnaires must be carefully prepared to avoid bias and may produce a low-return rate
Interviews are expensive and time consuming

21. Research Methods - Fieldwork
Participant Observation
Researcher observes the subjects while joining in their regular activities
Goal is to gain entry into a setting without disturbing the normal routine behaviors of others
Cultural anthropologists use this method calling it “fieldwork”
Uses
Exploratory and descriptive study of people in a “natural” setting
Produces qualitative data

22. Research Methods - Fieldwork
Applications:
For an exploratory and descriptive study of people in a “natural” setting
Generates qualitative data
Advantages
Allows study of “natural” behavior
Rather inexpensive
Limitations
Very time consuming
Difficult to reproduce findings
Researcher must balance the roles between being an observer and a participant

23. Research Methods – Existing Sources
Existing Sources – “Secondary Analysis”
The analysis of data that someone else has already collected
Application
For any type of research where suitable data is unavailable
Advantages
Saves time and effort on collecting original data
Allows historical research
Limitations
Researcher has no control over possible biases in the data
The data may not be suitable for current research needs

24. Ethics in Research

25. Ethics in Research
Sociologists must remember that their research can be used to both help and hurt their subjects and communities
The American Sociological Association (ASA) has set down guidelines for conducting ethical research
Professional Competence
Sociologists should be technologically competent and fair-minded in their work
Professional and Scientific Responsibility
They must present their findings without omitting data
Are ethically bound to share their studies with other sociologists who want to replicate their research

26. Ethics in Research Professional Integrity
Sociologists must conduct themselves in ways that inspire trust
Ensure the safety of their subjects
Informed consent
Avoid deception
Avoid conflicts of interest, especially in regards to funding