What is Grammar? Introductory Unit – Presentation 1 “a set of shared assumptions about how language works” What does ‘Grammar’ mean? Coming from Greek ‘gramma’ it means a letter/ sth written.

Why is Grammar important? Loose ‘bricks’ cannot hold up an edifice To get here, you need some sort of frame

…where everything falls into place and builds on top of the others… …in a neat, orderly way!

Λογοτεχνική/ Φιλολογική = the kind of words used in stories, poems, etc but not in normal speaking/ writing. e.g. Mallet had talents enough to keep his literary reputation alive as long as he himself lived. Literary

Δόκιμη/ Επίσημη = serious and correct/ suitable for official use. e.g. Pertaining to the statutes hereby stipulated. Formal

Δημώδης/ Ανεπίσημη= suitable for friendly settings but not for official use. e.g. The word ‘informal’ is one of the worst enemies to higher civilisation. It is only a synonym for ‘free-and-easy’. Informal

Δημοτική/ Καθομιλούμενη= every-day language used in informal situations. e.g. Such sentiments do your heart good. Colloquial

Λαϊκή/ Αργκό= very informal to the point of unsuitable for most situations, usu. used only by certain groups of people. e.g. The police-officers think that the robbery was a put-up job. Slang

Εξειδικευμένη/ επαγγελματική φρασεολογία= special words and phrases, usu. used and mainly only understood by people doing the same kind of work. e.g. We have to okay L1 use for monolingual classes. (teaching jargon) Jargon

(Επίσημη) Ορολογία= words and phrases used in a particular business, science or profession. e.g. You can use JavaScript on an HTML webpage to optimise its output. Terminology

Κυριολεκτική= words used in their most basic meaning. e.g. I have had the honour to give you a literal and faithful narrative of the conversation. Literal

Αλληγορική/ Μεταφορική= words used outside their most basic meaning to make them more impressive or appealing. e.g. There is a figurative sense in which things are said to be in the mind. Figurative/ Metaphorical

Πλατειαστική/ -ός Λόγος= including information not immediately relevant to the main subject. e.g. Racism as a social phenomenon has been around for centuries. It was during the last two hundred years, though, that hatred toward ethnic minorities went to other extremes. Discursive

Παραστατική/ Γλαφυρή= unusual and interesting use of language to make it more attractive. e.g. The moment our discourse rises above the ground line of familiar facts and is inflamed with passion it clothes itself in images. Picturesque

Κοινωνιόλεκτο/ Γλωσσικό ιδίωμα κοινωνικής ομάδας= type of language used in particular situations or when communicating with particular groups of people. e.g. Letter-writing has its own very distinct register. Register

Εκφραστικό Ύφος/ Είδος (Γραπτού/ Ομιλίας)= (in cinema, writing, art) a certain style that is easily discernible by its unique features. e.g. The novel did not really exist as a genre before the 17th century. Genre

Οξύμωρο σχήμα= an expression of words with opposite meanings. e.g. a passive activity, a bitter sweet experience Oxymoron

Παράδοξο/ Ειρωνεία= contradictory ideas that point out some underlying truth. e.g. I noticed the following paradox on board an Italian ferry once: in the smokers’ area there were ashtrays with the ‘no-smoking’ sign plastered on them. Paradox/ Irony

Ευφημισμός= using a less offensive or more agreeable term. e.g. senior citizen. Euphemism

Υπερβολή= exaggeration of a statement. e.g. At 1.75m, Samuel towers above his classmates. Hyperbole

Μεταφορά= stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality. e.g. She used the metaphor of war to describe the fight against disease. Metaphor

Νεολογισμός= a term recently created, or an old one used with a new meaning. Opp. archaism e.g. The class which, to use a modern neologism, ‘formulates’ the ideas. Neologism

Προσωποποίηση= attributing human qualities to inanimate things & animals. e.g. The personification of the elements was common practice in ancient Greece. Personification

Παρομοίωση= comparison between two things using like or as. e.g. They work like slaves. Simile

Προφορά= the way in which you say the letters or words in any given language. e.g. I don’t know how to pronounce the name ‘Eustace’. Pronunciation

Ιδιοπροφορά= the way of saying words that shows what country, region, or social class someone comes from. e.g. James has completely lost his Irish accent. Accent

Επιτονισμός= the way in which your voice rises or falls when you speak. e.g. Surely, you know that your intonation should rise when asking a question! Intonation

Τονισμός= the degree to which the sound of a word or part of a word is high or low OR the sound of someone’s voice that shows what they are feeling. e.g. Her surprised tone of voice could only mean she really didn’t know about us coming! Tone

Ρυθμός= a regular pattern of sounds. e.g. You can’t expect the Listening Test at A2 level to be delivered at the same rhythm as B2. Rhythm

SHORT VOWELS LONG VOWELS ALMOST VOWELS CONSONANTS cont’d DIPTHONGS cont’d / ɪ / pig, lid /e/ pen, edge /æ/ hat, fat / ʌ / bus, ugly / ɒ / long, cot / ʊ / put, book / ə / river, other /i:/ leaf, meet / ɑ :/farm, aunt / ɔ :/ horn, August /u:/ room, lose / ɜ :/ nurse, first /j/ few, euro /w/ we, wake /m/ come, lamb /n/ net, know /ŋ/singer, climbing /l/ lot, beetle /r/ write, marry /s/ city, sack /f/ fear, photo /v/ van, of /p/ pet, stop /b/ bet, rib /t/ task, art /d/ do, mad /k/ cat, kit / ɡ / gain,big /t ʃ / chair, itch /d ʒ / bridge, jar /θ/ thank, tooth /ð/ the, that / ʃ / charade, she /z/ zoo, prison / ʒ / treasure, Asia /h/ he, whose / ɔɪ / oil, boil / ə ʊ / low, boat /a ʊ /brow, our / ɪ ə /here, deer /e ə / fair, hare / ʊ ə / lure, endure DIPTHONGSProblem Sounds /e ɪ / eight, late /a ɪ / buy, icon ə (schwa), æ, t ʃ, ʃ ŋ, ɜ : Simplified IPA