What are the factors influencing perception? What are common perceptual distortions? What is social learning theory? What is the link between attribution and perception? What is involved in learning by reinforcement? 4-2 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Perception  The process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them. 4-3 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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4-5 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. What do you see?

4-6 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Influence Factors Stages of Perception Response (Feeling, thinking, acting) Interpretation Organization Retrieval Attention and Selection Schemas/Scripts Interpretation Organization Attention and Selection Interpretation Organization Attention and Selection

Attention and selection  Selective screening  Lets in only a tiny portion all the information that is available  Two types of selective screening  Controlled processing  Screening without perceiver’s conscious awareness 4-7 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Schemas  Cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge about a given concept or stimulus developed through experience. 4-8 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Self schema  Contains information about a person’s own appearance, behavior, and personality. Person schema  Refers to the way individuals sort others into categories in terms of similar perceived features. 4-9 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Script schema  a knowledge framework that describes the appropriate sequence of events in a given situation. Person-in-situation schema  combines schemas built around persons and events Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

You have just been told that your job has been ‘down-sized’. This has never happened to you before. Now what?  1) Take cues from your environment.  2) Pay attention to salient cues.  3) Create a new mental category (laid off).  4) Consider how others have responded Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Interpretation  Uncovering the reasons behind the ways stimuli are grouped Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Retrieval  Attention and selection, organization, and interpretation are part of memory.  Information stored in memory must be retrieved in order to be used Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Impression Management Systematic attempt to influence how others perceive us.  Cultivating positive impressions can help to advance a job or career Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Stereotypes  Assigns attributes to an individual that are commonly associated with a group.  Individual differences are obscured.  Strong impact at the organization stage Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Halo effects  Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Selective perception  The tendency to single out for attention those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one’s needs, values, or attitudes Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Projection  The assignment of one’s personal attributes to other individuals Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Contrast effects  Occur when an individual’s characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered, who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Self-fulfilling prophecy  The tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one expected to find Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4-21 SELF FULFILLING PROPHESY

Think about the self-fulfilling prophecy. Which of the following would not be a good idea? a. Instill confidence in your staff. b. Identify errors in employee’s performance and refer to them often. c. Treat all new employees as if they are star performers. d. Set high performance goals Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Attribution  Process of creating explanations for events. Can be classified as internal or external:  Internal factors – Personal characteristics that cause behavior (e.g.,, lack of knowledge, ability, effort, motivation, attitude)  External factors – Environmental characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., task difficulty, good/bad luck, not enough training, situational factors like technical malfunctions, weather, health) 4-23 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Distinctiveness  Consistency of a person’s behavior across situations. Consensus  Likelihood of others responding in a similar way. Consistency  Whether an individual responds the same way across time Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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4-26 External Attribution *High consensus *High distinctiveness *Low consistency Internal Attribution *Low consensus *Low distinctiveness *High consistency

Fundamental attribution error  “Your poor performance is caused by you!”  In general, we tend to blame the person first, not the situation Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Self-serving bias  Tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than failure.  I got an “A” because I studied.  I got a “D” because the exam was too hard Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Do not overlook the external causes of others’ behaviors. (Identify and confront your stereotypes, your biases, your preconceived notions.) Evaluate people based on objective factors. Do not rush to judgment (5.13 sec) 4-29 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cultural differences in attributions :  Individualistic cultures - managers more likely to attribute employee poor performance to internal causes.  Negative attributes – blame team-mates for subordinates for performance problems.  Collectivist cultures – overemphasize self-serving bias; managers blame themselves for group’s failure Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Social learning theory  Describes how learning occurs through interactions among people, behavior, and environment Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Self efficacy  The person’s belief that he or she can perform adequately in a situation (self- confidence, competence, ability).  Key factor in self-control Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Reinforcement  The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior.  Appropriate use of reinforcement used can alter the direction, level and persistence of a behavior Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Classical conditioning  A form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. Stimulus  Something that elicits some kind of a response Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Operant conditioning  The process of controlling behavior by manipulating, or “operating” on, its consequences.  Considered ‘learning by reinforcement’ Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4-36 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Law of effect  Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

You work really hard at your job, and are not rewarded. The “law of effect” would suggest that you will a. Quit b. Keep trying to impress the right people 4-38 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4-39 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)  The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Positive reinforcement  Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a desirable consequence.  Law of contingent reinforcement - only the correctly exhibited behavior is rewarded.  Law of immediate reinforcemen t – reward must be provided as soon as possible after the behavior Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Shaping  Creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Continuous reinforcement  Administering a reward each time the desired behavior occurs. Intermittent reinforcement  Rewards behavior periodically — either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Negative reinforcement  The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in a similar setting Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Punishment  The administration of negative consequences, or the withdrawal of positive consequences, to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Extinction  The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4-48 Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Team Leader Antecedent “Do good work” Team Member Response High work quality Low work quality High work quality High error rate Low work quality Team Leader Behavior Praise and rewards Criticism and reprimand No criticism; no reprimand Takes away break time No praise; no rewards Type of Reinforcement Strategy Positive Reinforcement Punishment Negative Reinforcement PunishmentExtinction

Behavior modification techniques, when utilized positively in organizations, can be very powerful and effective in encouraging desired performance.  Because of their potential power, they may lend themselves to inappropriate or even unethical uses Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.