1. Learning and Perception
Chapter 4
Learning and Perception
Michael A. Hitt
C. Chet Miller
Adrienne Colella

2. Knowledge Objectives
Describe the effects on learning of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Discuss continuous and intermittent schedules of reinforcement.
Explain how principles of learning can be used to train newcomers as well as to modify the behavior of existing associates.
Describe the effects of limited opportunities to learn from experience.

3. Knowledge Objectives
Describe the effects of unclear feedback and methods for handling such feedback.
Discuss learning from failure.
Identify typical problems in accurately perceiving others and solutions to these problems.
Explain the complexities of causal attributions and task perception.

4. Fundamental Learning Principles
A process through which individuals change their behavior based on positive or negative experiences in a situation
Learning occurs only when changes in behavior happen (change is the essence of learning)
Learning is driven by experience with a particular situation (learning is situationally specific)

5. Operant Conditioning/Social Learning
Operant conditioning theory
An explanation for consequence-based learning (behavior is learned as a function of its consequence)
Social learning theory
Humans can observe others in a situation and learn from what they see (humans do not need to directly experience a specific situation to understand a behavior and its consequences)

6. Contingencies of Reinforcement
The situation
Behavioral response
Consequences of the behavior
Positive consequences, or removal of negative ones, reinforces behavioral response
Aversive consequences lead to avoidance of the same behavioral response, or to new responses to similar situations in the future
New response to the situation
Adapted from Exhibit 4-1: Effects of Reinforcing Consequences on Learning New Behaviors

7. Reinforcing Contingencies
Reinforcement always refers to a contingent event that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations
Positive reinforcement occurs when the behavior is followed by a positive consequence(s)
Negative reinforcement occurs when the behavior is followed by the absence or withdrawal of a previous negative consequence(s)

8. Non-reinforcing Contingencies
Non-reinforcing contingencies always refer to a contingent events that decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations
Punishment occurs when the behavior is followed by a negative consequence
Extinction occurs when a behavior is followed by the absence of positive consequences (and by definition of punishment, negative consequences)

9. Effects of Contingent Consequences
Presence of a positive (Positive Reinforcement)
Absence of positive/negative (Extinction)
Positive
Type of consequence involved
Removal of a negative (Negative Reinforcement)
Presence of a negative (Punishment)
Negative
Increased
Decreased
Likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

10. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous schedule—reinforcement follows each instance of desired behavior
Intermittent schedule—reinforcement does not follow each instance of desired behavior
Fixed interval—reinforcement based on fixed unit of lapsed time
Variable interval—reinforcement based on varying lapses of time
Fixed ratio—reinforcement based on consistent number of instances of the desired behavior
Variable ratio—reinforcement after desired behavior has occurred a variable number of times
Adapted from Exhibit 4-2: Schedules of Reinforcement

11. Training and Enhancing Performance
Determine new behaviors to be learned
Establish smaller, ordered units of new behavior
Demonstrate or model desired behaviors to trainee
Use contingent reinforcement for
new behavior
New job behaviors learned, performance improves
Trainee practices new behavior in presence of trainer

12. OB Mod
A formal procedure focused on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and extinction of undesired behaviors
Exhibit 4-3 Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

13. Low Probability-High Consequence Events
Experiencing a particular situation only once or not at all limits the opportunity to try different approaches (behaviors and consequences) for dealing with it
If an approach cannot be used multiple times, one cannot learn the likelihood of positive or negative consequences of the approach
Consequently people exposed to low probability-high consequence events may have faulty learning

14. Unclear Feedback
Situations often involve multiple consequences, such that one cannot clearly infer how the individual consequences affect behavior
Simulation may be an approach for separating out the effects of the consequences on the behavior
A representation of a real system that allows associates and managers to try various actions and receive feedback on the consequences of those actions

15. Causal Relationships at a Sports Club
Exhibit 4-4 Casual Relationships at a Sports Club

16. Intelligent Failure
Intelligent failures that result in learning are the result of certain kinds of actions
Actions are thoughtfully planned.
Actions have a reasonable chance of producing a successful outcome.
Actions are typically modest in scale, to avoid putting the entire firm or substantial parts of it at risk.
Actions are executed and evaluated in a speedy fashion, since delayed feedback makes learning more difficult.
Actions are limited to domains that are familiar enough to allow proper understanding of the effects of the actions.

17. Three Stages of Perception
Perception: A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected facts 1
Sensing
Stage 1: Sensing various characteristics of a person, task, or event
Touch
Sight
Smell
Taste
Hearing

18. Three Stages of Perception
Perception: A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected facts 1
Sensing
Stage 2: Selecting from the data those facts that will be used to form the perception
Selective or biased perception?
Accurate perception requires selection of all relevant data 2
Selecting

19. Three Stages of Perception
Perception: A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected facts 1
Sensing
Stage 3: Organizing the selected data into useful concepts pertaining to the object or person
Concepts help individuals predict the consequences of their behaviors
Formation of everyday concepts help people deal successfully with problems 2
Selecting 3
Organizing

20. Perception of the Person
Perceptions of People
Nature of Perceiver
Familiarity with Person
Feeling Toward Person
General Emotion State
Problems in
Person Perception
Logical Error
Halo Effect
Projecting
Stereotyping
Perception of the Person
Nature of the Situation
General Nature of the Other Person
Apparent Intentions of the Other Person
Consequences of the Interaction
Adapted from Exhibit 4-5 Person Perception

21. Problems in Perception
Logical error
Individual forms an impression of a person on the basis of only one or two central characteristics
Halo effect
Individual assesses a person positively or negatively in all situations based on an existing general assessment of the person

22. Problems in Perception
Projecting
individual assumes that others share his or her values and beliefs
Stereotyping
Individual has preconceived ideas about a group and assumes that all members of that group share the same characteristics

23. Attributions of Causality
Attributions affected by perceptions of
Consistency
Consensus
Distinctiveness
Internal attributions
External attributions
Personality
Attitudes
Abilities
Organizational resources
Luck
Uncontrollable influences

24. Attributions of Causality
High
External
Distinctiveness
Low
Internal
High
External
Individual Behavior
Consensus
Low
Internal
High
External
Consistency
Low
Internal
Adapted from Exhibit 4-6 Attribution Theory

25. Attributions of Success and Failure
Fundamental attribution error
Perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal rather than external causes
Self-serving bias
Perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the failure of others to internal causes and the successes of others to external causes

26. Task Perception
Perceptions of one’s job has important implications for behavior and outcomes
Task perceptions have been linked to mood, intrinsic motivation and job performance
Perceptions of tasks develop through subjective and sometimes idiosyncratic processes