HI290- History of Germany Total War, 1914-1918

Factors leading up to the war: Wilhelminian Weltpolitik with its blunders and sense of entitlement System of alliances; Entente Cordiale/Triple Entente (Russia, France, Britain) and Central Powers/Triple Alliances (AH, Germany, Italy) Balkan wars 1912/13 German outstanding economic position and economic rivalries

The July Crisis

The ‘Spirit of 1914’ Enthusiasm and Sympathy for Austria on the Streets of Berlin (August 1, 1914) August 1, 1914, in Berlin by Arthur Kampf (1914)

Burgfriede A political truce called by the parties in the Reichstag for the duration of hostilities. Even the SPD agreed to this and voted for War Credits. The SPD supported the war because: They had been convinced that this was a defensive war against autocratic Russia. Many Socialists were also patriots and were proud of Germany and her achievements. The party leadership hoped to gain political legitimacy through supporting the nation in its hour of need.

Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, 1891-1906 The Schlieffen Plan Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, 1891-1906

The Schlieffen Plan Fails The invasion of Belgium made Germany seem like the aggressor and brought Britain into the War. The plan had not been updated to take recent Russian and French military reforms into account. Moltke weakened the thrust through Belgium by diverting troops to Alsace and Lorraine and East Prussia. The Germans faced stiffer resistance than anticipated – in particular they had not expected to have to fight the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The German advance halted at the First Battle of the Marne (4-10 Sept. 1914) and the Battle of the Aisne (15-18 Sept. 1914). September-December: The ‘race for sea’. By December 1914 the front had stagnated into a 400 mile system of trenches running from the Swiss border to the North Sea. The War as it was supposed to be fought: German Infantrymen March Singing into the Battle of Langemarck, November 10, 1914 … … And the war as it was fought: digging in to defensive positions, 1914

Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) 1847: Born at Poznan in Prussian Poland, the son of an East Prussian landowner. Educated at cadet schools in Wahlstadt and Berlin. Fought at Königgrätz (1866) and in the Franco-Prussian War. 1878: Joined the General Staff. 1905: Promoted to the rank of General. 1911: Retired from active service. 22 August 1914: Brought out of retirement to command the German Eighth Army in East Prussia. Victory at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes made him a national hero. In many ways the archetypal Prussian Junker.

Postcard: Resting in the Trenches,c. 1914 Trench Warfare The Battlefield in the Argonne Forest (1916) Postcard: Resting in the Trenches,c. 1914

Trench Warfare German troops attacking, July 1916 (Top Left), posed photograph of a ‘Storm Trooper’ (Bottom Left), German soldier wearing First World War trench armour (Above)

State Intervention 1915: Kreigsrohstoffabteilung (Raw Materials Department, KRA) – ensures the acquisition, storage and distribution of materials vital to the war effort. 1915: Bread rationing introduced. 1916: Zentral-Einkaufs-Gesellschaft (Central Purchasing Company) – acquisition of goods from neutral countries. 1916: Reichsgetreidstelle (Imperial Gain Office) – controlled food supplies and issued ration cards . Hindenburg Programme (1916) – Intended to concentrate industry on the production of munitions. Auxiliary Service Law (1916): Government could conscript workers and decide where they should work. Walter Rathenau (1867-1922), industrialist and founder of the Kreigsrohstoffabteilung

War Finance Germany already had a large budget deficit before 1914. Taxation not sufficient to finance the war, and proposals to raise taxes vetoed on political grounds and the fiscal privileges of Junkers continued unabated. Only 16% of the cost of the war met by taxation. War financed by printing money and war loans. This led to massive inflation – by 1918 the mark had lost 75% of its value. Also a fall of real wages (20% in war industry, 40% in other branches).

German Food rations (October 1918): Food Shortages By the autumn of 1916 food shortages,Inflation and mounting casualties beginning to effect the public mood. 1916-17: The ‘Turnip Winter’ – exceptionally cold weather and a poor potato harvest lead to a severe food and fuel crisis. Between 1916 and 1917 deaths from hypothermia and malnutrition rose from 121,000 to 293,000. Infant Mortality at 50% by 1918. German Food rations (October 1918): 50 g. (1.8 oz.) of meat, 57 g. (2 oz.) of fat, 25 g. (.9 oz.) of butter, 5 lb. of bread, 125 g. (4.4 oz.) of legumes, 250 g. (.6 lb.) of flour, 4-5 lb. of potatoes, 1 lb. of marmalade, ½ litre (1 pint) of milk, and 1 g. (.04 oz.) of sugar.

Mobilisation for Total War Measures Failures War Raw Materials Office: coordination of industrial products. Food rationing in 1915. War Food Office 1916. Substitutes – clothes with paper fibres. Gaps in the labour force filled by women (emancipation – double burden). Auxiliary Labour Law (1916): Government could conscript workers and decide where they should work. ‘Dictatorship’ of Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) – Hindenburg and Ludendorff – loss of influence for civil government – strengthening of army influence. Scarcity of clothing, soap, food. Agricultural production fell, meat consumption only 12% of pre-war level. Malnutrition and starvation – ‘turnip winter’ 1916/17 (consequence: up to 750,000 dead). Polarisation: pro ‘Siegfrieden’ (victorious peace) with far reaching war aims, pro peace without contributions and annexations. Middle Classes: pauperisation, living conditions closer to working class – but many now more nationalist, angst (loss of status) . Working Class: spontaneous strikes in 1916 and 1917.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) Source: G. Layton, From Bismarck to Hitler: Germany, 1890-1933

The Final Gamble: The 1918 Spring Offensive Source: P. J. Haythornthwaite, The World War One Sourcebook

Dolchstoßlegende (Stab in the Back Myth) Philipp Scheidemann and Matthias Erzberger betray the troops.

Casualties of the War Russia 2,762,064 1,000,000 3,950,000 2,500,000   Known dead Seriously wounded Otherwise wounded Prisoners or missing Russia 2,762,064 1,000,000 3,950,000 2,500,000 Germany 1,611,104 1,600,000 2,183,143 772,522 France 1,427,800 700,000 2,344,000 453,500 Austria-Hungary 911,000 850,000 2,150,000 443,000 Great Britain 807,451 617,714 1,441,394 64,907 Serbia 707,343 322,000 28,000 100,000 Italy 507,160 500,000 462,196 1,359,000 Turkey 436,924 107,772 300,000 103,731 Rumania 339,117 200,000 ...... 116,000 Belgium 267,000 40,000 10,000 United States 107,284 43,000 148,000 4,912 Bulgaria 101,224 852,339 10,825 Greece 15,000 30,000 45,000 Portugal 4,000 5,000 12,000 200 Japan 300 ........ 907 3 Total 9,998,771 6,295,512 14,002,039 5,983,600