The Information-Processing Approach

Outline: The nature of the information-processing approach Attention Memory Expertise Metacognition

1. The nature of the information-processing approach Information, memory, and thinking Cognitive resources: capacity and speed of processing information Mechanism of change

Information, memory, and thinking Information-processing approach: a cognitive approach in which children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this approach are the cognitive processes of memory and thinking

Cognitive resources: capacity and speed of processing information As children grow and mature: Information-processing abilities increase Important biological development occur both in brain structures and level of neurons Experience Controversy: experience vs biological maturation

Mechanisms of change Encoding: the process by which information gets into memory Automaticity: the ability to process information with little or no effort Strategy construction: creation of a new procedure for processing information Metacognition: cognition about, or “knowing about knowing”

The Information-Processing Approach Attention

Attention Attention: the focusing of mental resources

Types of attention: Selective attention: focusing in a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant Divided attention: concentrating on more than one activity at a time Sustained attention: maintaining attention over an extended period of time Executive attention: involves action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.

Developmental changes The length of time children can pay attention increases as they get older Preschool children’s ability to control and sustain their attention is related to school readiness Ex: attractive clown presents the direction for solving problem Preschool children and after the age 6 or 7 12-year-olds were markedly better than 8-year-olds and slightly worse than 20-year-olds at allocating their attention in a situation involving two tasks (divided attention)

The Information-Processing Approach Memory

Retaining information Memory Memory: the retention of information over time through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. STORAGE Retaining information over time RETRIEVAL Taking information out of storage ENCODING Getting information into memory

Encoding In addition o attention, encoding consists of a number of processes: rehearsal, deep processing, elaboration, constructing images, and organization Rehearsal: the conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time information stays in memory Deep processing  Levels of processing theory: the theory that processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory

Elaboration: the extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding Constructing images: when we construct an image of something, we are elaborate the information Organization  Chunking: grouping or “packing” information into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units

Storage Three types of memory correspond different time frames: Sensory memory (a second to several second) Short-term memory ( lasts about 30 seconds) Long-term memory ( lasts up to a lifetime)

Sensory memory: memory that holds information from the world in its original form for only an instant Short-term memory: a limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer

Memory span: the number of digits an individual can report back without error in a single presentation Working memory: a three-part system that holds information temporarily as a person performs a task. A kind of “mental workbench” that lets individuals manipulate, assemble, and construct information when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language

- Long-term memory: a type of memory that holds enormous amounts of information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion Model of the three memory stores: Atkinson-Shiffrin model: a model of memory that involves a sequence of three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Long-term memory’s contents: Declarative memory: the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated Nondeclarative memory: procedural knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations. Nondeclarative memory cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or facts

Two subtypes in declarative memory: Episodic memory: the retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings Semantic memory: an individual’s general knowledge about the world, independent of the individual’s identity with the past

Characteristic Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Units Events, episodes Facts, ideas, concepts Organization Time Concepts Emotion More important Less important Retrieval process Deliberate (effortful) Automatic Retrieval report “I remember” “I know’ Education Irrelevant Relevant Intelligence Legal testimony Admissible in court Inadmissible in court

Representing information in memory Network theories: theories that describe how information in memory is organized and connected; they emphasize nodes in the memory network

Schema theories: theories that when we construct information, we fit it into information that already exists in our mind Schema: information (concepts, knowledge, information about events), that already exists in a person’s mind Script: a schema for an event

Fuzzy trace theory: states that memory is best understand by considering two types of memory representations; (1) verbatim memory trace, and (2) fuzzy trace or gist. In this theory, older children’s better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information

Retrieval and forgetting Retrieval: when we retrieve something from our mental ‘data bank’, we search our store of memory to find the relevant information Serial position effect: the principle that recall is better for items at the beginning and the end of a list than for items in the middle Encoding specificity principle: the principle that associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues Recall vs recognition

Forgetting Cue-dependent forgetting: retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective retrieval cues Interference theory: the theory that we forget not because we actually lose memories from storage but because other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember

Decay theory: the theory that new learning involves the creation of a neurochemical ‘memory trace’, which will eventually disintegrate. Thus, decay theory suggests that the passage of time is responsible for forgetting

The Information-Processing Approach Expertise

Expertise and learning Experts are better than novices at the following: Detecting features and meaningful patterns of information Accumulating more content knowledge and organizing it in a manner that shows an understanding of the topic Retrieving important aspects of knowledge with little effort Adapting an approach to new situations Using effective strategies

Detecting features and meaningful of organization Experts: better at noticing important features of problems and context than novices Experts have superior recall of information in their area of expertise Organization and depth of knowledge Experts’ knowledge is organized around important ideas or concepts more than novices’ knowledge is

Fluent retrieval Adaptive expertise Strategies

Strategies Spreading out and consolidating learning Asking themselves question Taking good notes Summarizing Outlining Using concept maps Using study system (PQ4R) Preview Question Read Reflect Recite Review

Acquiring Expertise Practice and motivation Talent

Expertise and teaching Pedagogical content knowledge Technology, expertise, and teaching

The Information-Processing Approach Metacognition

Metacognition Metacognitive knowledge: monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or recent thoughts Metacognitive activity: occurs when students consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking Theory of mind: awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others

Developmental Changes 2 to 3 years of age: perception, emotion, desires 4 to 5 years of age: false beliefs Middle and late childhood: multiple interpretation Adolescence: knowing the best strategy to use and when to use it in performing a learning task

The good information-processing model Children are taught by parents or teachers to use a particular strategy Teachers may demonstrate similarities and differences in multiple strategies in a particular domain At this point, students recognize the general benefits of using strategies, which produces general strategy knowledge

Strategies and metacognitive regulation Practice: use effective strategy over and over again until they perform it automatically

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