You think it’s good? Well, you’re wrong. MEMORY
DEF: forming a memory code Requires attention: focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events Attention is selective; acts as a filter ENCODING
Craik and Lockhart (1972) propose incoming info can be processed at different levels 3 levels for verbal info.: 1: Structural encoding: shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus LEVELS OF PROCESSING
Phonemic encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like Semantic encoding: emphasizes meaning of verbal input; thinking about the objects and actions the word represents Levels of Processing Theory: deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes LEVELS OF PROCESSING CONTINUED
Elaboration: linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding Helps enhance semantic encoding Involves thinking of examples to illustrate the idea ENRICHING ENCODING
Creating visual images to represent words to be remembered Allan Paivio: easier to form images for concrete words Dual-coding theory: holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall VISUAL IMAGERY
DEF: deciding how or whether info is personally relevant It is easier to remember something if it is meaningful to you SELF-REFERENT ENCODING
Storage is maintaining info in memory over time STORAGE: MAINTAINING INFORMATION IN MEMORY
DEF: preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second Gives additional time to recognize stimulus Visual and auditory memory trace decays after ¼ of a second SENSORY MEMORY
STM is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to 20 seconds Rehearsal: process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the info SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Ability to recall decays considerably after only 15 seconds This is due to time-related decay and interference from competing stimuli DURABILITY OF STORAGE
1956: George Miller publishes “Magical Number 7” paper Claims you can store 7 items (+ or – 2) in STM You can increase capacity by Chunking: grouping familiar stimuli and storing as a single unit CAPACITY OF STORAGE
Alan Baddeley: “Working memory” consists of 3 parts: 1: Phonological rehearsal loop (ex: reciting a phone #)—only 2 seconds of info 2: Visuospatial sketchpad: allows to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images 3: Executive control system: handles info as you engage in reasoning and decision making STM AS “WORKING MEMORY”
DEF: an unlimited (virtually) capacity store that can hold info over lengthy periods of time LONG-TERM MEMORY
Flash-bulb memories: unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events Hypnosis induced memories ESB triggering long-lost memories LONG-TERM MEMORY PERMANENT?
Dominant thought today is that STM is a tiny and constantly changing portion of LTM STM AND LTM SEPARATE
HOW IS KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTED AND ORGANIZED IN MEMORY?
Clustering: tendency to remember similar or related items in a group Conceptual hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items CLUSTERING AND CONCEPTUAL HIERARCHIES
Schema: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event SCHEMAS
Script: organizes what people know about common activities A kind of schema SCRIPTS
DEF: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts Spreading activation: naturally thinking of related words SEMANTIC NETWORKS
PDP models assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks PDP models assert that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks CONNECTIONIST NETWORKS AND PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING (PDP)
RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT OF MEMORY
DEF: temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by the feeling that it’s just out of reach Similar memories are interfering TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMENON
Context cues facilitate the retrieval of info. Remembering the origin of the thought REINSTATING THE CONTEXT OF AN EVENT
Distortions in recall occur b/c subjects reconstruct a story to fit w/ their established schemas Theories: overwriting, interference, and… RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES AND MISINFORMATION EFFECT
Def: process of making attributions about the original memories Source-monitoring error: when a memory derived from a source is misattributed to another source Reality monitoring: process of deciding whether memories are based on external or internal sources SOURCE-MONITORING