It Begins… After the failure of the revolutions, leadership for Italian unification passed to Giuseppe Mazzini. – –Founded Young Italy in its goal was a united Italian republic. – –Their dreams were almost fulfilled in 1848 when a number of Italian states revolted. – –Venice became a republic, the Kingdom of Piedmont tried to free Italy from Austrian control – –But counterrevolutionary forces prevailed, Austria defeated Piedmont and the French helped Pope Pius IX regain control of Rome.

Garibaldi Defends Rome Against the French, (April 30, 1849)

Pope Pius IX: The “Spoiler”?

Count Cavour [The “Head”] Giuseppi Garibaldi [The “Sword”] King Victor Emmanuel II Giuseppi Mazzini [The “Heart”] Italian Nationalist Leaders

In the 1850’s Austria is still the dominant power on the Italian peninsula. Italian nationalists started to focus on Piedmont as their best goal to achieve unification. Victor Emmanuel III is the current king and his minister is Count Camillo di Cavour.

Sardinia-Piedmont: The “Magnet” Italian unification movement: Risorgimento [“Resurgence”]

Count Cavour Liberal minded, noble, fortune from agriculture, banking, railroads and shipping. He was a moderate who favored constitutional government. His growth of the Piedmont economy allowed him to pour money into equipping a large army. He knew he would be a fool to challenge Austria directly- he would need help Cavour and Napoleon III came to an agreement to drive the Austrians out of Italy.

Cavour & Napoleon III Meet at Plombières, 1858 What “deals” are made here?

The terms of their agreement. – –Piedmont would add Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena and part of the papal states to its territory. – –France would receive Nice and Savoy from Piedmont. – –A kingdom of central Italy would be created for Napoleon III’s cousin, Prince Napoleon who would be married to Victor Emmanuel III’s daughter. – –Napoleon believed he would have the opportunity to control Italy with this arrangement. – –Once the agreement was settled, Cavour provoked Austria to war.

Betrayal The French won the first two battles but realized the Austrian army was far from defeated and that Prussia was mobilizing to support them. France made peace with Austria without Italy knowing. Piedmont got Lombardy but Venetia went to Austria. Cavour was FURIOUS

Austro-Sardinian War, 1859

Meanwhile in the South… Giuseppe Garibaldi arose as a new leader for Italian unification (former supporter of Mazzini) Raised an army of red shirts and went to help the revolutionaries fighting against the King of the 2 Sicilies. He won and most of Sicily was under his control. ‘He began a march up the Italian coast, Naples fell to him next. Re enter Cavour…aware that Garibaldi wanted to march on Rome, which would being the French. – –In addition Cavour was a moderate, Garibaldi wanted a democratic republic.

Cavour intervenes and invades the Papal states, headed to Naples. Garibaldi yields to him vs. civil war and retires to his farm. Cavour in creates the new kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel III- papal states, 2 Sicilies and Piedmont Sardinia. Cavour dies. Yet Austria still held Venetia and the Pope still held Rome.

Garibaldi & His “Red Shirts” Unite with Cavour

Italy was unprepared to fight the French or the Austrians. It was Prussia that indirectly finished Italian unification. When Austria and Prussia went to war in 1866, the new Italian state allied with Prussia. The Italians were defeated but the Prussians won and gave Italy Venetia. In 1870 France and Prussia went to war, leading the French to withdraw troops from Rome. The Italian army annexed the city and in 1870 it became the new capital of a united ITALY

Austro-Prussian War, 1866 Austria loses control of Venetia. Venetia is annexed to Italy.

French Troops Leave Rome, 1870 Italy is united!

A Unified Peninsula! A contemporary British cartoon, entitled "Right Leg in the Boot at Last," shows Garibaldi helping Victor Emmanuel put on the Italian boot.

The Kingdom of Italy: 1871 What problems still remain for Italy?

Zollverein, 1834

Prussia/Austria Rivalry Prussia and Austria were the only two states powerful enough to dominate German affairs. Prussia created the Zollverein in 1834 which was basically a trade/customs union. Everyone but Austria joined. Germans began to see Prussia in a new light, as their possible leader to bring about unification.

Kaiser Wilhelm I

Chancellor Otto von Bismarck “Blood & Iron” Realpolitik The “Iron Chancellor”

Otto von Bismarck.... The less people know about how sausages and laws are made, the better they’ll sleep at night. Never believe in anything until it has been officially denied. The great questions of the day will not be settled by speeches and majority decisions—that was the mistake of —but by blood and iron.

Otto von Bismarck.... I am bored. The great things are done. The German Reich is made. A generation that has taken a beating is always followed by a generation that deals one. Some damned foolish thing in the Balkans will provoke the next war.

The German Confederation William I tried to pass a bill to increase the power of the Prussian army. Parliament fearing that voted it down. Bismarck is appointed as prime minister and tries again. When he is denied by parliament, he rules the next several years without it. Raises the taxes and begins building up the army anyways.

Step #1: The Danish War [1864] The Peace of Vienna Bismarck always made sure Prussia would fight only one power during a war and that the power was diplomatically isolated. Bismarck persuaded Austria to join Prussia in declaring war on Denmark. Denmark lost and Prussia got Schleswig and Austria Holstein. Bismarck began plotting to gain control over Northern German states, and while working with Austria he was also laying the foundation for war if it came to that later.

Step #2: Austro-Prussian War [Seven Weeks’ War], 1866 Prussia Austria Bismarck easily got Russia’s agreement to stay neutral in the case of an Austrian Prussian war. Napoleon III took longer, but Bismarck was able to get his neutrality in exchange for promises of land. Then Bismarck made a deal with the new Italian state, Venetia in exchange for neutrality, once Prussia won. Prussia won the war and refused to place a harsh punishment on Austria, they lost no territory but Venetia and had to stay out of German affairs. Northern German states unified under Prussia and the Southern states (Catholic) remained independent.

Step #3: Creation of the Northern German Confederation, 1867 Shortly following the victory of Prussia, Bismarck eliminated the Austrian led German Confederation. He then established a new North German Confederation which Prussia could control  Peace of Prague

Step #4: Ems Dispatch [1870]: Catalyst for War 1868 revolt in Spain. Spanish leaders wanted Prince Leopold von Hohenz. [a cousin to the Kaiser & a Catholic], as their new king. France protested & his name was withdrawn. The Fr. Ambassador asked the Kaiser at Ems to apologize to Nap. III for supporting Leopold. Bismarck “doctored” the telegram from Wilhelm to the French Ambassador to make it seem as though the Kaiser had insulted Napoleon III.

Step #5: Franco-Prussian War [ ] German soldiers “abusing” the French. French declared war after the Ems Dispatch The Prussians quickly and soundly defeated France. The French had to pay 1 billion in war reparations to Prussia and they lost Alsace and Lorraine, leaving the French wanting revenge. The Southern German states now agreed to unify with the North. Germany had been merged in Prussia under William I.

Step #4: Franco-Prussian War [ ]

Bismarck & Napoleon III After Sedan

Treaty of Frankfurt [1871] The Second French Empire collapsed and was replaced by the Third French Empire. The Italians took Rome and made it their capital. Russia put warships in the Black Sea [in defiance of the 1856 Treaty of Paris that ended the Crimean War] France paid a huge indemnity and was occupied by German troops until it was paid. France ceded Alsace-Lorraine to Germany [a region rich in iron deposits with a flourishing textile industry].

Coronation of Kaiser Wilhelm I [r. 1871–1888]

Prussian Junkers Swear Their Allegiance to the Kaiser

German Imperial Flag German for “Empire.”

Bismarck Manipulating the Reichstag Though the creation of parliament elected by universal male suffrage presented opportunities for the growth of democracy, it failed to develop in Germany before WW1, because of the army and Bismarck. The army refused to be subordinate to the Reichstag, responsible only to the Emperor. Bismarck’s policies also stifled the growth of democracy. Kulturkampf- struggle for civilization passed an anti socialist law

Bismarck’s Kulturkampf: Anti-Catholic Program Take education and marriage out of the hands of the clergy  civil marriages only recognized. The Jesuits are expelled from Germany. The education of Catholic priests would be under the supervision of the German government.

Bismarck’s Reapproachment With the Catholic Church Bismarck & Pope Leo XIII

Kaiser Wilhelm II [r ] The socialist party continued to grow in Germany despite Bismarck’s efforts. He had plans for more repressive measures but the new Kaiser, retired him before he could carry them out in 1890.

Queen Victoria’s Grandchildren

“Dropping the Pilot” [1890]

Kaiser Wilhelm II

Louis Napoleon won over the French people and in 1851 when parliament wouldn’t let him run for reelection, he seized control of the government with troops. He instituted universal male suffrage and asked the people to elect him president for 10 years. He won the vote overwhelmingly. A year later he asked the people to make him emperor and 97% voted yes. France was ruled under Napoleon III as an authoritarian state. There was a parliament, elected by all the male voters, but they couldn’t initiate legislation or have a say in the budget. The first 5 years of his reign were uber successful (he used government resources to encourage industrial growth. – –Finished the railroads – –Tripled iron production – –Provided free healthcare for workers and advocated for better housing – –Redesigned Paris into a modern city

Napoleon III was less successful in his foreign policy. Sent troops to Mexico to help Spain and Britain protect their interests among rebellions. – –British and Spanish withdrew forces after order was restored but the French remained. – –The French put an emperor on the throne of Mexico, but when they had to withdraw their troops in 1867, the Mexicans executed the emperor, damaging French prestige.

The Crimean War [ ] Russia [claimed protectorship over the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and occupied modern day Romania] Ottoman Empire Great Britain France Piedmont-Sardinia British and French wanted to prevent Russian expansion esp their access to the western Mediterranean. Napoleon III believed it would increase support for his reign.

The Charge of the Light Brigade: The Battle of Balaklava [1854] Allies, concentrated efforts to take the Russian fortress in Crimea. Famous charge of the light brigade, British soldiers charged and were mowed down by cannon fire. 195 out of 700 survived. Eventually the allies triumphed. Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! "Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred…

The Crimean War [ ]

Treaty of Paris [1856]  Russian had to return land to the Turks.  No Russian or Ottoman naval forces on the Black Sea.  Russians had to renounce their claim as protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.  All the major powers agreed to respect the political integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

During the generation after the Reform Bill of 1832, further demands for reform mounted. Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative leader in the House of Commons, pushed for a new reform bill. Reform Bill of 1867 passed- vote extended to most of the urban workers. William Gladstone became Prime Minister in Began his “Great Ministry.” – –Competitive examinations for civil service. – –Education Bill of 1870 (helped create a more literate electorate) – –1871 Workers gained the right to organize unions – –Gladstone still opposed government interference in the economy.

In 1874 Conservatives won the House of Commons and Disraeli became the Prime Minister until 1880 and then from – –Promoted Tory democracy, designed to benefit the working class and gain support for his party. – –Less committed to laissez faire than the liberals. Laws in 1875 increased government’s role in economic affairs. – –Factory Act extended earlier legislation regulating working conditions. – –Public Health Act expanded the role of the state in urban sanitation. – –Artisans’ Dwellings Act authorized the clearing out of slums and the construction of public housing. – –Reform Bill of 1884 gave the right to vote to farmers.

In the late 19 th century, the Labor Party formed in Britain and eventually replaced the liberals as one of the 2 major political parties in Great Britain. In the years after 1905 though, the Liberals were in charge and enacted several reforms – –Workmen’s Compensation act- expands aid to workers injured on the job – –Old Age Pensions- provided state support pensions for low income citizens over 70 – –Parliament Act of House of Lord’s was refusing to pass a budget bill, the “people’s budget” so this made it so they couldn’t refuse to pass a money bill, or prevent other laws from passing that the House of Commons passes three times in 2 years. This act weakens the power of the House of Lords, moving Britain closer towards a full political democracy.

Differing Nationalities in the Austrian Empire

Austrian Imperial Flag After the revolutions of , they restored centralized autocratic government to the empire. Only lasting effect was the freeing of the Serfs.

Emperor Franz Josef I [r ]

The Compromise of 1867: The Dual Monarchy  Austria-Hungary The Hungarian Flag Austrians and Hungarians reached the Ausgleich or Compromise of Created a dual monarchy- each part has its own constitution, parliament and capital. They had a common king, army, foreign policy and system of finances. It did not satisfy the minorities living in the empire, it just allowed the Austrians and the Hungarians to dominate them (Poles, Croats, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks…) This problem persists until the empire dissolves at the end of WW1.

Russian Imperial Flag

Nicholas I [r ] Autocracy! Orthodoxy! Nationalism!

Alexander II [r ] Defeat in the Crimean War. Emancipation of the Russian serfs [ ]. Created Zemstvos- unable to control the forces he released with his reform program. They wanted more rapid change. Russification

Russian Expansion During Alexander II, Russia continued its expansionist polices in Serbia and Central Asia. He extended Russian’s control over all of central Asia and Afghanistan. Brutally crushed the Polish revolt and began the Russification of the country.

Alexander III [r ] Reactionary. Slavophile. “Russification” program. Jews  forced migration to the Pale Succeeded by his weak son, Nicholas II

Russian Expansion The Pale

Forced Migration of Russia’s Jews

The Ottoman Empire -- Late 19 c “The Sicker Man of Europe”