By: Amber Booker and Jessica Martin

-The pancreas is at the back of the abdomen, lying beneath the stomach - It is connected to the small intestine at the duodenum <<<pancreas

-The pancreas produces 4 different hormones -The pancreas is an endocrine and exocrine gland -The exocrine gland is responsible for aiding in digestion by secreting digestive juices and an alkaline solution into the small intestine through ducts to neutralize stomach contents and help break down its contents. -For the endocrine portion, the pancreas contains clusters of cells called the islets of Langerhans, which are responsible for producing the 4 hormones insulin, glucagon, somatosatin and pancreatic polypeptide. -These clusters contain 3 major types of cells: alpha cells, beta cells and delta cells. -Alpha cells take up about 20% of the islet cells and produce glucagon -Beta cells consist of about 70% and produce insulin -Delta cells consist of about 8 % of cells and produce somatosatin -There are also F cells in the islets of Langerhans which produce the pancreatic polypeptide but they have only been recently discovered and likely take up 2% of the islet cells.

-The target cells for insulin are almost all of the body’s cells -This is because almost all cells contain insulin receptors which allow glucose to pass from the bloodstream into the cells and because all cells need energy to function. -Insulin’s major targets are the liver cells, fat cells, and muscle cells. This is where excess glucose is stored as energy. When excess glucose is consumed it is not needed in the cells so it travels through the bloodstream and is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles so it can be used later and the cells do not starve in between meals. -Glucagon targets the cells in the liver, muscles and kidneys. -Pancreatic polypeptides targets the gall bladder and the pancreas itself -Somatostatin targets the pancreas itself also

-Insulin stimulates the fat cells to form fat from fatty acids and glycerol so that energy can be used later on. -Insulin also inhibits the production of glucose by metabolic pathways in the liver and kidneys. -Glucagon stimulates the liver, muscles and kidneys which break down stored glycogen into glucose and releases them into the blood. -Pancreatic polypeptides inhibits pancreatic secretion, inhibits gall bladder contraction, and it reduces appetite. -Somatostatin works to to inhibit the secretion of both insulin and glucagon and to reduce the rate at which food is absorbed from the contents of the intestine

-Insulin is triggered when there is a presence of glucose and fatty acids in the intestine. This stimulates the beta cells to produce insulin and release it into the blood. This also inhibits the alpha cells from producing glucagon. -When a slight drop in blood glucose levels occur, it stimulates the pancreas to release glucagon from alpha cells which inhibits the release of insulin and causes the glycogen to be converted into glucose and released into the blood stream. This enables the body to keep a steady blood-glucose level. -Pancreatic polypeptides are stimulated by eating, exercising, and fasting. It is decreased by somatostatin and intravenous glucose. -Somatostatin is stimulated when insulin or glucagon is released. This is because it inhibits whichever one is not being released at the time

-Diabetes type 1 -The body’s immune system attacks and destroys the pancreas’ insulin- producing cells. Lifelong insulin injections are required to control blood sugar. -Diabetes type 2 -The pancreas loses the ability to appropriately produce and release insulin. The body also becomes resistant to insulin, and blood sugar rises. -Pancreatitis -The pancreas becomes inflamed and damaged by its own digestive chemicals. Swelling and death of tissue of the pancreas are possible results. Although alcohol or gallstones can contribute to this disease, the cause of most pancreatitis is unknown. -Pancreatic Cancer -Each of the pancreas’ different cells can cause a different type of tumour. The most common type arises from the cells that line the pancreatic duct. There are usually few or no early symptoms so pancreatic cancer is usually advanced by the time it’s discovered.

-Islet cell tumour -When the hormone-producing cells of the pancreas multiply abnormally, creating a benign or cancerous tumour. These tumours produce excess amounts of hormones and then release them into the blood. -Gastrinomas, glucagonomas, and insulinomas are examples of islet cell tumours. - Pancreatic pseudocyst -After having pancreatitis, a fluid-filled cavity called a pseudocyst can form. Pseudocysts may resolve spontaneously, or they may need surgical drainage.