Chapter 2 Explaining the Social World: How do We Know?

The development of sociology as a science  Prior to the 19 th century religion was a strong influence on knowledge  19 th century philosophers helped create the modern way of studying science

Conditions that led to the rise of sociology  The Industrial Revolution  The French Revolution  European Imperialism (and exposure to other cultures)  Advances in the natural sciences

August Comte  Coined the term “sociology”  Called for systematic data collection and objective analysis  Asked “What holds society together?” (social statics or structure) and “Why is there change in society?” (social dynamics or process)

Assumptions of Science  There is a real physical world that can be studied systematically  There is order in the world resulting from causes and effects  Empirical tests allow us to gain knowledge of the world  Scientific knowledge must be based on measurable phenomena  Science is rooted in objectivity

Theories  Statements regarding how facts are related to each other and the connection between them  The level of analysis and theory help determine the method used to measure the social phenomena  E.G., “Childhood experiences have an impact on career choices”

Two types of reasoning  Deductive- moving from general theories to specific hypotheses  Hypotheses- educated guesses based on theories (e.g., “People who experienced hospital stays as children will be more likely to pursue careers in health care”)  Inductive- moving from specific data (facts) to general theories

Steps in the Research Process  Planning the study  Designing the research methods  Doing the analysis  Drawing conclusions

Planning a study  Define the problem clearly  Find out what is already known about the topic  Formulate hypotheses  Operationalize variables  E.G., “hospital stay”= one or more overnight stays in a hospital as a patient while under the age of 16

 Ways that two concepts can be related  Correlation  Cause and effect  Independent variable- the cause of change  Dependent variable- the variable that changes  Time dimension necessary  Spurious relationship  Control variables help eliminate the possibility of a spurious relationship

Designing the research methods  Methods depend upon the level of analysis, the theory, and the research question  The value of the study depends upon the quality of the data collected

 Survey method  Interview- conducted by speaking with respondents directly  Questionnaire- respondents answer in writing  Open-ended questions- allow the respondent to answer however they wish  Close-ended questions- force the respondents to choose from among a set of predetermined responses

 Field studies/observational methods- systematic, planned observations of social interactions  Detached/non-participant- the researcher merely observes  Participant observation- the researcher participates in the activity being studied  Research effects- the group may be altered by the presence of the researcher  Ethnography- a field study that involves self reflection; the findings guide the future methods and observations

 Controlled experiments- all variables are controlled except the ones being studied  Control group- subjects who are not exposed to the treatment  Experimental group- subjects who are exposed to the treatment  Allow for the examination of true cause and effect, but cannot be used to study many sociological questions, research effects may result, and it is unethical to introduce many variables into the laboratory

 Existing sources- using pre-existing materials in a new way  Secondary analysis- Using data that has already been collected for other studies  Data may not be representative, may not directly answer the researcher’s questions, and any problems in the original data will persist in the new study  Content analysis- systematic categorization and recording of information from written or recorded sources  Unobtrusive, inexpensive, and easy to do

 Triangulation- the use of multiple methods of research to enhance the accuracy of the findings Triangulation Survey Research Content Analysis Participant Observation

Selecting a sample  Sample- a small group of people who are systematically chosen to represent the larger population  Representative- accurately reflects the group being studied  Random- every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected  Non-representative- cannot be generalized to the larger population

Doing the analysis and drawing conclusions  Data is interpreted  Results are discussed and conclusions are drawn about whether the hypotheses are supported  Findings must be replicable  Each study gets us closer to an accurate understanding of the social world

Ethical issues in social research  Sociologists must ensure that subjects are not harmed in any way and that their confidentiality is protected  The subjects must provide informed consent  Human subjects boards at universities and research institutions help protect subjects

Sociology’s major theoretical perspectives  Theoretical perspective- a basic view of society that:  Guides sociologists’ ideas and research  Helps them understand social behavior  Helps develop explanations of organized social patterns and their relationships  Can be micro- or macro- level (all can be used at the meso level)

Symbolic Interactionism  Level: micro to meso  Main ideas: through interactions and symbols, we socially construct our worlds. These constructions help us decide how to act and are dependent upon our social positions  Key theorists: Mead, the Iowa School, Weber  Main criticisms: neglects macro-structures; difficult to study concepts like “the mind” and “the self”

Rational Choice Theory  Level: micro to meso  Main ideas: people make choices based on utilitarian factors motivated by self interest; attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs  Main criticisms: macro-level and internal processes given little attention; challenge of the idea that human behavior is always self- centered or utilitarian; cannot explain altruistic behavior

Structural-functionalism  Level: meso to macro  Main ideas: society is primarily stable and orderly; all parts of the system are interrelated and necessary for society’s function  Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Parsons  Main criticisms: Fails to explain change in society; assumes conflict is harmful (but it can actually lead to greater stability); just because a system seems stable does not mean that it is equitable

Conflict Theory  Level: meso to macro  Main ideas: conflict underlies all social relations because of injustice in society; social change is desirable, especially when it can lead to greater equality; the powerful impose their values and beliefs on the weaker  Key theorists: Marx, DuBois, Dahrendorf, Simmel, Coser, Weber  Main criticisms: micro-level not explained; difficult to test empirically; not effective in explaining cohesion and cooperation

Feminist Theory  Level: micro to meso to macro  Main ideas: women are disadvantaged by the hierarchical way society is organized; sociology has traditionally been male dominated; feminist theory is rooted in conflict and symbolic interactionism  Main criticisms: the theory should address the intersection of race, class, and gender

Using multiple theoretical perspectives  Desirable because each theory makes its own contribution