The Chemistry of Life Chapter 2
2-1 Element Substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances 91 occur naturally –#1-92 found naturally; except 43, 61 –#93 and above are synthetic –Only 25 needed for life Only 4 elements make up 96% of human mass: C, H, O, N 4% are Ca, P, K, S, Na, trace elements
Atoms Smallest particle of an element Structure –Center is the nucleus, contains protons (+) and neutrons (0) –Electrons (-) form a cloud around the nucleus
Electron energy fields Electrons travel around the nucleus in energy levels –1 st holds 2 electrons –2 nd holds 8 –3 rd holds 18 Atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons (make up a neutral atom)
Isotopes Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons Ex carbon-12 and carbon-14
Compound Substance composed of atoms of different elements chemically combined 3 ways to combine elements –Covalent bond –Ionic bond –Hydrogen bond
Covalent bonds Atoms share electrons equally Bonding makes atoms more stable Covalent bonds produce molecules –Sugar –Fat –Protein –Water
Covalent bond
Ionic bonds Atoms combine by gaining or losing electrons in the outer energy levels Ions-atoms that have gained or lost electrons Attractive force between ions of opposite charges produces ionic bond Important for biological processes –Transmission of nerve impulses –Muscle contraction
Ionic Bond
Hydrogen bonds Bond between hydrogen of one molecule and the negative ion of another molecule Strongest MOLECULAR bond Important in biological molecules like protein or nucleic acids
Hydrogen bonds
Mixture Combination of substances in which individual substances retain their own properties –Stir sand and sugar together –do not combine chemically –Do no change
Solution A mixture in which one or more substances are distributed evenly in another substance –Kool-Aid is evenly distributed in water –Kool-Aid (solute) will dissolve –Water (solvent) does the dissolving
2-2 Importance of water Makes up 70%-95% of most organisms Used to transport materials in organisms
Water molecule
Water’s polarity Covalent bonds between oxygen and hydrogen of water do not share electrons equally –Oxygen attracts electrons more strongly –Oxygen will be more negative –Hydrogen will be more positive –Creates an unequal distribution of charge or polarity –Gives water its dissolving power
Other water properties governed by hydrogen bonding Adhesion-an attraction between molecules of different substances Cohesion-attraction between molecules of the same substance High specific heat-water resists changes in temperature; must absorb more heat to increase in temperature
pH Measures amount of H+ ions in solution (the concentration of H+ determines whether a solution is acidic or basic) Scale ranges from 0 to 14 is acidic is basic
pH scale
Acids Forms hydrogen ions (H+) in water Hydrogen chloride added to water makes H+ and Cl- As a solution this would be hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Bases Form hydroxide ions (OH-) in water Sodium hydroxide in water forms Na+ and OH-
Buffers Weak acids or bases that react with strong acids or bases Prevent sudden changes in pH
2-3 Carbon atoms When bonded to each other can form –Straight chains –Branched chains –rings Can also form isomers –Compounds with the same formula but different 3-D arrangement
Carbon structures
Macromolecules Contain ten, hundreds, or thousands of carbon atoms Used by cells for biological processes Made by bonding small units together to make polymers
Carbohydrates Store and release energy Composed of C, H, and O Single unit called monosaccharide Largest are polysaccharides Examples –Starch-branched chain of glucose in plants –Glycogen-highly branched chain of glucose in animals
Carbohydrates
Lipids Contain large amounts of C, H, but less amounts of O Called fats and oils Insoluble in water Used for long-term energy storage, insulation, protective coverings Major components of membranes
Lipids
Proteins Build structure and carry out metabolism Made of C, H, O, N, S Basic units are amino acids (20) –Linked by condensation reactions –Release water as waste product –Covalent bond between amino acids is called a peptide bond –Protein determined by order of acids
Proteins Building blocks structural components of organisms Important for –Muscle contractions –Transport of oxygen –Immunity –metabolism
Protein (peptide bond)
Proteins Enzymes –Speeds up metabolic reactions –Help with food digestion –Synthesis of molecules –Storage and release of energy
Nucleic Acids Stores information in code form Units called nucleotides Made of C, H, O, N, P arranged in 3 groups –Base –Simple sugar –Phosphate group
Nucleic Acids DNA-deoxyribonucleic acid –Master copy of organism’s code –Forms genetic code –Contributes to physical traits RNA-ribonucleic acid –Copy of DNA –Used for protein synthesis
Nucleic acid
2-4 Chemical reactions In organisms are called metabolism Break down and build molecules Atoms are never created or destroyed, just rearranged Reactants are on the left Products are on the right
Chemical reaction
Energy in reactions Some reactions release energy and are called spontaneous (exothermic) Some require energy and must get it from another source (endothermic) Activation energy is the energy required to get a reaction started
Chemical equilibrium Can be seen in reactions that are reversible Equilibrium is reached when the reaction takes place at an equal rate in both directions So both reactants and products are made at the same time
Enzymes Proteins that act as catalysts in reactions Work by lowering the activation energy So not as much energy is needed to get the product
Enzymes
Enzyme regulation Enzymes can be controlled or affected by –pH –Temperature –Other proteins