Historical influences on teaching style Prior to 1960s Teaching methods primarily influenced by Pavlov, Skinner and Watson – the behaviourists Believed that learning was through classical conditioning –learning through association Child seen as passive receiver of knowledge Led to teaching by direct instruction – didactic, chalk & talk Little reference to developmental stages of the child which might affect what s/he can understand

Historical influences on teaching style Work of Piaget (cognitivist) and Vygotsky (social constructivist) became influential (tho’ their theories were put forward during 1930s and 40s) ‘Child centred’ theory of learning challenged didactic teaching Both development psychologists recognised that children have their own way of thinking. They are not little adults. Plowden Report 1967 -recommended a shift away from didactic teaching to child centred teaching Mention backlash against Plowden which led to NC in 1988.

The introduction of the National Curriculum 1988 ‘The 1988 Education 'Reform' Act, which, with its imposition of a subject-based National Curriculum and associated regime of testing and published league tables, forced schools to train pupils to get good test results so as to compete for pupils. Under the combined pressures of the National Curriculum, HM Inspectorate and OFSTED exhortations and criticism from across the political spectrum, primary schools are returning to formal, whole-class teaching methods and are teaching knowledge organised within traditional subject categories in a didactic manner. For many contemporary critics of primary education their bete noire is the Plowden Report' (David McNamara, Professor of Education at the University of Hull, The Times Educational Supplement, 21 March 1997).

Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934 Born in 1896 in Orsha, Belarus. Grew up in Gomel in prosperous Jewish family. Attended Moscow University, majoring in law. Graduated 1918. Returned to Gomel and taught in a wide variety of situations and pursued the study of psychology. In 1924 he moved to Moscow, frenetically working on an amazingly diverse set of projects. He died of tuberculosis in 1934, leaving a wealth of work that is still being explored.

Social Constructivism Social constructivism is a form of cognitive constructivism that emphasises the collaborative nature of much learning Vygotsky admired Piaget’s work but did not see the child as ‘lone-explorer’ He believed that social and cultural influences crucially influence intellectual development, and was particularly interested in the role of language and social interaction. He also thought that play and imagination were important to development and learning

Zone of Proximal Development According to Vygotsky, the ZPD: "is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." (Vygotsky, 1978)

Or put more simply… The difference between what a child can learn alone and what he can learn through interaction with others.

Video clip http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=634376752589779456

Implications for Vygotsky’s thinking on classroom practice Play is important as it helps children to experiment with new roles and ideas and stimulates cognitive development Teacher needs to take into account what child already knows and believes and plan accordingly. Giving support to learners at the appropriate time and level allows further understanding Learning can be supported through discussion, practical activities, resources etc. Children should be engaged in active learning with the teacher actively assisting what they are doing The thinking that peers are important influences on learning has led to co-operative group work. Children need to be taught appropriate language and how to use it so skills can be transferred to other contexts. NLS and NNS are essentially Vygotskyan

Potential limitations to Vygotsky’s work: In emphasising the nurture side of learning (the impact of others and the scaffolding they offer to learning), it could be argued that there is not enough emphasis on children’s role in their own development – the nature of learning and the child’s own personality. Some of Vygotsky’s critics have taken issue with his methodologies as much of his work was not based on empirical evidence but were untested ideas or hypotheses.

Jerome Bruner 1915 – ‘Knowing how something is put together is worth a thousand facts about it’ Continues the constructivist approach to learning Introduced term ‘scaffolding’ – the way in which new ideas are presented to us can influence the way in which we master them Thus, the extent to which a teacher varies presentation to fit content, and provides stimuli and prompts to aid a lesson, affects the extent to which pupils can grasp new concepts.

Video Clip: scaffolding in practice Watch the video clip ‘Models & Images’. Consider: How is the children’s learning scaffolded by: the teacher? the equipment used? the resources available? In teaching, scaffolding means offering support when new ideas are introduced. This may be through demonstration & modelling, often in shared or guided work (strong links to NNS / NLS which are Vygotskyan in nature), by providing frameworks & prompts, by working alongside individuals or groups offering prompts. Recognising when to withdraw scaffolding is important so learners do not become over-dependent. They need some support in their independent efforts e.g. success criteria cards, checklists for self-evaluation, writing frames / vocabulary banks etc. and the opportunity to discuss their own learning, Asking children to reflect on their preferred strategies in the plenary is also essential to scaffolding – makes children explicitly aware of their learning process.

Bibliography / Further Reading Kyriacou, C. (1997) Effective Teaching in Schools: (Theory and Practice, (2nd edition)) Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Chapter 3: How Pupils Learn Potter, R. Chapter 5: An Introduction to Children’s Learning in Jacques, K. and Hyland, R. (2000) Professional Studies: Primary Phase. Exeter: Learning Matters Pritchard, A. (2005) Ways of Learning: Learning Theories and Learning Styles in the Classroom. London: David Fulton Wood, D. (1998) 2nd edition, How Children Think and Learn. Oxford: Blackwell