Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 Adolescence 9th edition By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D. Chapter Two: Cognitive Transitions Insert Image

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 Chapter 2 Overview What are the major changes in cognition that take place during adolescence?What are the major changes in cognition that take place during adolescence? What are the major theoretical perspectives on adolescent thinking?What are the major theoretical perspectives on adolescent thinking? What changes take place in the adolescent brain?What changes take place in the adolescent brain? Do individual differences in intelligence in adolescence exist?Do individual differences in intelligence in adolescence exist? How do changes in cognition affect real-world situations that adolescents encounter?How do changes in cognition affect real-world situations that adolescents encounter?

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 Changes in Cognition (Thinking) Main advantages over children’s thought: (1) Thinking about possibilities (2) Thinking about abstract concepts (3) Thinking about thinking (metacognition) (4) Thinking in multiple dimensions (5) Seeing knowledge as relative (relativism)

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 Thinking about Possibilities Example: Ways in which their lives might be affected by different career choices Example: Ways in which their lives might be affected by different career choices Moves easily between the specific and the abstract to generate alternative possibilities Moves easily between the specific and the abstract to generate alternative possibilities Development of deductive reasoning Development of deductive reasoning – “If-then” thinking – Major intellectual accomplishment

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5 Thinking about Abstract Concepts Ability to comprehend higher-order abstract logic:Ability to comprehend higher-order abstract logic: –Puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies The growth of social thinking (social cognition) during adolescence is directly related to the young person’s improving ability to think abstractlyThe growth of social thinking (social cognition) during adolescence is directly related to the young person’s improving ability to think abstractly

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 Metacognition: Thinking About Thinking Monitoring one’s own cognitive activity during thinkingMonitoring one’s own cognitive activity during thinking –Increased introspection: thinking about our own emotions –Increased self-consciousness: thinking that others are thinking of us –Increased intellectualization: thinking about our own thoughts

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 Metacognitive Consequences Adolescent EgocentrismAdolescent Egocentrism –Imaginary audience Believe that everyone is watchingBelieve that everyone is watching Behavior is the focus of other’s concernBehavior is the focus of other’s concern –Personal fable Experiences are unique Experiences are unique Nothing bad can happen to them because they are special Nothing bad can happen to them because they are special

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 Thinking in Multiple Dimensions Ability to view things from more than one aspect at a timeAbility to view things from more than one aspect at a time More sophisticated understanding of probabilityMore sophisticated understanding of probability Understand sarcasmUnderstand sarcasm Understand double-entendresUnderstand double-entendres

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 Adolescent Relativism Ability to see things as relative rather than as absoluteAbility to see things as relative rather than as absolute Skepticism becomes commonSkepticism becomes common Everything may seem uncertainEverything may seem uncertain No knowledge seems completely reliableNo knowledge seems completely reliable

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 10 Adolescent Thinking: Piaget’s View SENSORIMOTOR STAGE BIRTH TO 2 YEARS PREOPERATIONAL 2 TO 6 YEARS CONCRETE OPERATONAL 6 TO 11 YEARS FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ YEARS

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11 Adolescent Thinking: Piaget’s View Cognitive-developmental viewCognitive-developmental view –Interaction between biological change and environmental stimulation –Leads to intellectual growth Each stage is characterized by a particular type of thoughtEach stage is characterized by a particular type of thought Adolescent thinking is thought to be qualitatively different from the type of thinking employed by childrenAdolescent thinking is thought to be qualitatively different from the type of thinking employed by children

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12 Adolescent Thinking: Piaget’s View Abstract system of logical reasoningAbstract system of logical reasoning –Chief feature that differentiates adolescent thinking from that of children –Framework on which to organize the range of possibilities, and the likelihood of outcomes for both concrete and abstract situations Competence and performanceCompetence and performance –A large gap exists between what can be done and what is done in daily life

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 Adolescent Thinking: The Information-Processing View Question of InterestQuestion of Interest –What is it about the ways in which adolescents think about things that make them better problem solvers than children?

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 14 Adolescent Thinking: The Information-Processing View Five areas of improvement:Five areas of improvement: Selective attention and divided attentionSelective attention and divided attention Working memory and long-term memoryWorking memory and long-term memory Processing speedProcessing speed OrganizationOrganization MetacognitionMetacognition

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 The Adolescent Brain Brain maturation is studied using noninvasive imaging techniques:Brain maturation is studied using noninvasive imaging techniques: –fMRI –DTI –EEG Brain maturation in adolescence is linked to behavioral, emotional, and cognitive development during this period (Keating, 2004)Brain maturation in adolescence is linked to behavioral, emotional, and cognitive development during this period (Keating, 2004)

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. How your Brain Works 16 A Typical Neuronal Cell Your brain contains about 100 billion neurons

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 The Synaptic Cleft: How Neurons Communicate

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18  Both structural and functional changes in the brain during adolescence  Important changes in:  The prefrontal cortex  The limbic system What Changes in The Brain?

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 Changes in Brain Structure during Adolescence Changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) improve efficiency of information- processing:Changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) improve efficiency of information- processing: –Synaptic "pruning” –Myelination Decrease in grey matter and increase in white matterDecrease in grey matter and increase in white matter –Increased white matter reflects improved connectivity within and across brain regions.

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 Changes in Brain Function during Adolescence Full Maturation of PFCFull Maturation of PFC –Not complete until mid-20s Dorsolateral prefrontal cortexDorsolateral prefrontal cortex –Important for planning ahead Ventromedial prefrontal cortexVentromedial prefrontal cortex –Important for gut-level, intuitive decision making Orbitofrontal cortexOrbitofrontal cortex –Important for evaluating risks and rewards

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Changes in Brain Function during Adolescence 21

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Changes in Brain Function during Adolescence Two important changes in brain function involving the prefrontal cortex:Two important changes in brain function involving the prefrontal cortex: –Patterns of activation within PFC generally become more focused –Activity in the PFC becomes increasingly coordinated with activity in other parts of the brain. 22

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Changes in Brain Function during Adolescence Functional change in the limbic systemFunctional change in the limbic system –Changes in the levels of several neurotransmitters DopamineDopamine SerotoninSerotonin Changes make individuals:Changes make individuals: –More emotional –More responsive to stress –More likely to engage in reward seeking and sensation seeking behavior 23

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Changes in Brain Function during Adolescence 24

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 Implications of the Timing of Brain Maturation Limbic system matures at pubertyLimbic system matures at puberty –Seek novelty, reward, stimulation Prefrontal cortex matures several years laterPrefrontal cortex matures several years later Time gap may explain why adolescence is a period of heightened experimentation with riskTime gap may explain why adolescence is a period of heightened experimentation with risk

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 Individual Differences in Intelligence in Adolescence Measurement of IQMeasurement of IQ – Intelligence quotient – First test developed in 1905 – Most widely used – and misused – psychological instrument Cohort Cohort – A group of people born during the same historical era

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 Individual Differences in Intelligence in Adolescence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of IntelligenceSternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence –Componential –Experiential –Contextual Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences –Seven types of intelligences Verbal, mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, self- reflective, interpersonal, musicVerbal, mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, self- reflective, interpersonal, music

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 Test Performance in Adolescence Intelligence test scores become increasingly stable during childhood (age 6 or 7) and are remarkably stable during adolescence.Intelligence test scores become increasingly stable during childhood (age 6 or 7) and are remarkably stable during adolescence. Sex differences Sex differences

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 29 Culture and Intelligence Vygotsky emphasized context in which intellectual development occursVygotsky emphasized context in which intellectual development occurs – Zone of Proximal Development –Scaffolding

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 Culture and Intelligence Culture-fair testsCulture-fair tests –Intelligence tests that attempt to reduce sources of ethnic or cultural bias –Based less on verbal skills –Oriented toward performance tasks

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 31 Adolescent Thinking in Context: Social Cognition Adolescents’ conceptions of interpersonal relationships become more mature:Adolescents’ conceptions of interpersonal relationships become more mature: –Understanding of human behavior is more advanced –Ideas about social institutions and organizations are more complex –Ability to figure out what other people think is more accurate

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 32 Adolescent Thinking in Context: Social Cognition Studies fall into four categories: (1)Social perspective taking (2)How individuals think about social relationships (3)Individuals’ conceptions of laws, civil liberties, and rights (4)Individuals’ understanding of social conventions

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 33 Adolescent Thinking in Context: Risk-Taking Risk-taking is more common among males than femalesRisk-taking is more common among males than females –This gender gap has been narrowing over time Young people behave in risky ways because a variety of emotional and social factors influence their judgmentYoung people behave in risky ways because a variety of emotional and social factors influence their judgment

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Emotional and Contextual Influences on Risk- Taking 34

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 35 Adolescent Thinking in Context: Risk-Taking Behavioral decision theoryBehavioral decision theory –Decision making is rational and individuals try to maximize benefits of alternative courses of action and minimize costs Personal fable about invulnerabilityPersonal fable about invulnerability –Early adolescents less likely than young adults to feel invulnerable –Adolescents vary more than adults in interpreting words describing risk

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Adolescent Thinking in Context: Risk-Taking Age differences in values and prioritiesAge differences in values and priorities –Adolescents and adults evaluate the desirability of possible consequences differently –Adolescents are more attuned to the potential rewards than adults are Might be more beneficial to convince adolescents that the rewards of a risky activity are small than to persuade them the costs are largeMight be more beneficial to convince adolescents that the rewards of a risky activity are small than to persuade them the costs are large 36