English II Chapter 13: Argument & Persuasion © Jeffrey Markowitz/CORBIS. All Rights Reserved.

Convincing Others What’s the difference between: Arguing Quarreling Argument – a paper grounded on logical, structured evidence that attempts to convince the reader to accept an opinion, take some action, or do both. A process Explore an issue fully Consider different perspectives, assumptions, reasons, and evidence oWill allow you to reach your own informed opinion

Arguing Effectively Will help you succeed in class and on the job Defending a particular management style Support or oppose limiting the number of terms that members of a legislature can serve. Make a written case for increased funding for exceptional students. Make the argument that a company should keep its account-keeping program.

Conflicts? Arguments don’t always involve conflicts Some simply support previously established decisions or courses of action (justifications, for example). Others attempt to establish common ground or weigh the pros and cons (if you and your roommate cannot decide on pizza toppings, maybe the result is half and half).

Not Arguable? Some topics are not arguable There’s no point in trying to argue these topics. Personal preferences (Kentucky is better than Indiana). Personal taste (Red is a prettier color than blue). Completely factual (Abraham Lincoln was once president). One-sided (Eisenhower was first elected president in 1952).

Not Arguable? Turn to argument when there is room for disagreement. Don’t simply write down your views as though they have been prefabricated. Argument represents an opportunity to think things through. Gradually come to conclusions. Join an existing conversation. Draft your conclusion with the support and evidence you have gathered

Other Ways to Convince The Rational Appeal Expected to reach your conclusions based on good reasons and appropriate evidence. Reasons = key points / general ideas you’ll use to defend your conclusions. If you support the needle-exchange program for intravenous drug users, one reason might be the considerable reduction in AIDS-related deaths that could result. If you oppose that program, one reason could be the drug dependency that would continue.

Reasons Reasons must be substantiated by evidence. If you are for the needle exchange program, you could cite numbers that project deaths prevented. If you are against it, you could quote an expert verifying that dependency would be likely. Use evidence that supports your opinion Between the evidence and your opinion, the goal is for your readers to begin changing their minds and begin getting on-board with your point of view. That assumes that you and your readers start from common ground about evidence…

Evidence Strong arguments combine the following kinds of evidence: Established truths: No one can seriously dispute these facts. Historical ScientificGeographical Opinions of authorities: It’s more challenging for opponents to dispute recognized experts in the field. DoctorsLawyersScientists Criminologists ProfessorsCEOs Police officersCounselorsSurgeons

Evidence Primary Sources: Documents or other materials produced by individuals directly involved with the issue or conclusions you reached by carrying out an investigation yourself. LyricsAutobiographiesAccounts InterviewsObservationsCertificates Statistical Findings: Statistics show how much, how many, or how often and they come from books, magazines, newspapers, handbooks, encyclopedias, and reports, many of which are available online. You can also build your own statistical data by conducting your own investigation.

More on statistics Unfortunately, many people distrust the use of statistical data. Why? Because it is often misused. What you offer must be reliable. Make sure the sample isn’t too small. For instance, if we sampled our classroom of 15 students, would it be representative of the school majority? No. How could we make the sample and the statistics more reliable?

Evidence Personal Experience Has a way of delivering argument with force. Describing personal experiences combined with statistics, observations, and expert opinions can be an amazingly successful persuasive technique in winning readers over. Evaluating Evidence How can you tell that your source is good evidence and will qualify for inclusion? Just because you were in a train wreck doesn’t mean that, “All trains are dangerous.” That personal experience alone is “flimsy” evidence.

Reasoning strategies Induction Arguments based on experience or observation are best expressed inductively Inductive reasoning moves from specific details and observations to the more general underlying principles or process that explains them (e.g., Newton's Law of Gravity). It is open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. The premises of an inductive argument are believed to support the conclusion, but do not ensure it. Thus, the conclusion of an induction is regarded as a hypothesis.

Reasoning strategies Deduction Arguments based on laws or rules are best expressed deductively Deductive reasoning typically moves from general truths to specific conclusions. It opens with an expansive explanation (statements known or believed to be true) and continues with predictions for specific observations supporting it.

Reasoning strategies Deductive reasoning is narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming a hypothesis. It is dependent on its premises. For example, a false premise can lead to a false result, and inconclusive premises will also yield an inconclusive conclusion. Deductive reasoning leads to a confirmation (or not) of our original theories. It guarantees the correctness of a conclusion. Logic is the authority in the deductive method.