1. Reading Arguments Critically
Chapter 9
Reading Arguments Critically

2. Arguments
What is an argument? A writing that attempts to open readers’ minds to an opinion, change readers’ opinion, or move readers to action.

3. Arguments What is a good argument?
A work of negotiation and problem solving.
Both reader and writer search for knowledge to create common ground between them.
Readers job:
know whether you’re convinced by the argument

4. Elements of Argument 3 Main Elements
Claims: positive statements that require
support (thesis statement)
Evidence: facts, examples, expert opinions,
and other information that support the claim
Assumptions: writer’s underlying beliefs,
opinions, etc that tie the evidence to
the claim

5. Questions for Critically Reading an Argument
What claim does the writer make?
What kinds of quality evidence does the writer provide to support the claims.
What assumptions underlie the argument, connecting evidence to claims? Are they believable?
Is the writer reasonable?
Is the argument logical?
Are you convinced? Why or why not?

6. Recognizing Opinions Opinion –
a judgment based on facts and arguable on the basis of facts
Do not make arguments by themselves
You must satisfy yourself that the writer has specified evidence for the opinions.
Example:
The new room fees are unjustified given the condition of the dormitories.

7. Last year tuition increased 16 percent.
Recognizing Facts
Fact –
A verifiable statement that can be proved as true
Example:
Last year tuition increased 16 percent.
Claim of fact cannot work as the thesis of an argument.
Facts offer crucial evidence for the claim

8. Abortion is legalized murder.
Recognizing Beliefs
Belief –
A conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values
Often called opinions but they are not based on facts
Example:
Abortion is legalized murder.
Cannot serve as central or supporting claims of an argument.

9. Recognizing Prejudices
Opinion based on insufficient or unexamined evidence
Example:
Women are bad drivers.
Athletes are unintelligent.
Prejudice is testable – can be contested and disproved on the basis of facts.

10. Evidence for Argument Facts – verifiable statements
Statistics – facts expressed in numbers
Examples – specific cases
Expert opinions – judgments of authorities
Appeals to readers’ beliefs or needs

11. Criteria for Weighing Evidence
Is it accurate: trustworthy, exact, undistorted?
Is it relevant: authoritative, pertinent, current?
Is it representative: true to context?
Is it adequate: plentiful, specific?

12. Watching Language, Hearing Tone
The expression of the writer’s attitudes toward himself or herself, toward the subject, toward the reader.
Can tell you quite a bit about the writer’s intentions, biases, and trustworthiness.

13. Reasonableness
The sense you get as a reader that the author is fair and sincere.
Writer does not conceal or hide facts, distort information, use language to manipulate you

14. Chapter 10
Writing an Argument

15. Argument Try to clarify an issue or solve a problem
An argument subject must be arguable
Reasonable people will disagree over it and be able to support their positions with evidence

16. Thesis Statement Makes a claim that you want your readers to act on.
Example:
The new room fees are unjustified given the condition of the dormitories.
Must specify the basis of your claim

17. Analyzing Purpose and Audience
engage your readers and convince them of your position or persuade them to act
Depends on the response of your readers (audience)
Need a sense of who they are and where they stand

18. Using Reason 2 types of reasoning: Inductive Deductive
The thesis of your argument is a conclusion you reach by reasoning about evidence.
2 types of reasoning:
Inductive
make specific observations and you induce or infer a generalization (or claim)
Example: Model X is the most reliable.
Deductive
Proceed from generalization to your own specific circumstances
See pgs. 200 &201

19. Using Reason

20. Using Evidence Argument’s reasonableness depends on your evidence
Kind and quantity of evidence you use should be determined on your purpose, your subject and the needs of your audience.

21. Responsible Use of Evidence
Don’t distort
Don’t stack the deck
Don’t exaggerate
Don’t oversimplify
Don’t manipulate

22. Reaching Your Readers Appeal to their reason and emotions
Present yourself as someone worth reading
You account for views opposing your own

23. Rational and Emotional Appeals
Most arguments combine both
Rational appeals
Appeals to readers’ capacities for reasoning logically b/t evidence and claims
Emotional appeals
Appeals to readers’ beliefs and feelings

24. Ethical Appeal
Sense you are being a competent, fair, trustworthy person
Ample evidence
Appropriate emotional appeals demonstrate you share readers’ beliefs and needs
Correct in grammar, spelling, etc – underscores confidence
Sincere tone – assure readers you are a balanced person who wants to reason with them

25. Ethical Appeal - AVOID Insulting words Biased language Sarcasm
Exclamation points

26. Responding to Opposing Views
Good test of reasonableness is how you handle possible objections
You show yourself as honorable and fair
Strengthen your ethical appeal thus your entire argument
Common way to handle them – state them, then refute the ones you can.
Demonstrate why they are less compelling

27. Organizing your Argument
Introduction –
establishes significance of the subject
Body –
state and develop the claims supporting the thesis using relevant evidence
Response to opposing views –
addresses views, finds common ground, demonstrate greater strengths, etc.
Conclusion –
completes the argument, restates the thesis, summarizes the supporting claims, makes final appeal to readers