First Two Years: Biosocial Development Chapter Five First Two Years: Biosocial Development

Body Changes Rapid changes Consequences of neglect severe

Body Size Most notable time for physical changes in each of the first 12 months they grow an inch birth weight usually doubles by 4 months and triples by end of first year head-sparing—biological protection of the brain when malnutrition temporarily affects body growth

Sleep Newborns sleep about 17 hours per day needed for rapid growth REM sleep—rapid eye movement sleep—declines quiet sleep increases at about 3 months too immature to sleep through the night Infant’s sleep patterns influenced by brain waves and parents’ caregiving practices

Early Brain Development Most critical biosocial aspect of growth newborn’s skull disproportionately large at birth, 25% of adult brain weight by age 2, 75% of adult brain weight

Growth in the First Two Years

Connections in the Brain Head measurement increases 35% in first year brain development: changes in the brain’s communication system

Basic Brain Structures Neurons—long thin nerve cells that make up nervous system created before birth 70% in cortex (brain’s outer layer) Axons—nerve fibers that extend from neurons that send impulses Dendrites—nerve fibers extending from neurons that receive impulses

Action Potential http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ap.html

Action Potential

Areas of the Cortex

Basic Brain Structures, cont. Neurons—long thin nerve cells that make up nervous system created before birth 70% in cortex (brain’s outer layer) Axons—nerve fibers that extend from neurons that send impulses Dendrites—nerve fibers extending from neurons that receive impulses

Basic Brain Structures, cont. Each neuron has a single axon (nerve fiber) that extends from it and meets the dendrites of other neurons at intersections called synapses axons and dendrites don’t actually touch at synapses electrical impulses trigger brain chemicals called neurotransmitters, which carry information from axon of sending neuron across synaptic gap to dendrites of receiving neuron synapses are critical communication links with the brain

Connections in the Brain

Exuberance At birth more than 100 million neurons are present Phenomenal growth is referred to as transient exuberance—fivefold increase in dendrites in first 2 years As many as 15,000 connections may be made per neuron

Experience Enhances the Brain Specifics of brain structure and growth depend partly on experience exuberance is transient—transitional stage between newborn brain’s immaturity and the maturity of older child’s or adult’s brain underused neurons are inactivated, or pruned

Experience Enhances the Brain, cont. Reactions to Stress experiencing stress may cause overproduction of stress hormone developing brain can lose capacity to react normally to stress normal neuron connections may have been pruned for rapid response to repeated stress

Experience Enhances the Brain, cont. William Greenough identified 2 experience-related parts of brain growth experience-expectant brain functions require basic common experiences to develop normally experience-dependent brain functions depend on particular and variable experiences to develop

Experience Enhances the Brain, cont. Human brains are designed for expected experiences how the brain is structured and connected will depend on those experiences the brain expects certain experiences at certain ages these experiences critical if connections are to form; if connections not formed, plasticity may allow new connections and pathways as experiences continue

The Senses and Motor Skills Sensorimotor Stage cognition develops between senses and motor skills

Sensation and Perception All senses function at birth sensation—the response of sensory system when it detects stimulus begins with outer organ—nose, eyes, etc. perception—mental procession of sensory information when brain interprets sensation begins in the brain and requires experience cognition—thinking about what was perceived

Listening Begins prenatally and is acute at birth Certain sounds trigger newborns’ reflexes Newborns particularly attentive to human voice Newborns’ sensitive hearing combines with brain to distinguish sounds

Looking Vision the least mature sense at birth Visual experience combined with visual cortex maturation improves vision with time scanning becomes more organized, efficient, and centered Binocular vision—ability to focus two eyes in a coordinated manner to see single image

Tasting, Smelling, and Touching taste—functions at birth; calmed by sugar, sensitive to sour touch—comforted by human touch; feel pain smell—can distinguish between odors and have preferences Early sensation is organized for social interaction comfort

Motor Skills Most visible and dramatic body change of infancy

Reflexes Reflexes for survival are categorized maintain oxygen supply (breathing) maintain body temperature (crying, kicking) manage feeding (rooting and sucking) swallowing aids feeding spitting up if too much has been swallowed crying when stomach empty

Gross Motor Skills Involve large muscles and body movements crawling, creeping, walking

Fine Motor Skills Small, finely tuned movements, especially of hands and fingers, including successful grabbing fingering, pointing, and holding grasping a moving object transferring objects from hand to hand adjusting reach

Age Norms (in Months) for Gross Motor Skills*

Variations and Ethnic Differences Age at which motor skills acquired varies greatly because of ethnicity inherited factors—genetic differences patterns of infant care individual rate of physical maturation

Public Health Measures Newborn Care Immunizations Nutrition

Immunization Immunization—process that stimulates body’s immune system to defend against attack by a particular contagious disease smallpox polio measles

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) Risk factors? laying baby on stomach to sleep secondhand smoke low birthweight formula feeding rather than breast feeding

Ethnicity and SIDS Asian babies less likely to succumb Babies of African descent more likely Infantcare routines in different cultures play a role

Nutrition How Infants Are Fed

Breast Is Best Breast Milk begins with colostrum, high-calorie nourishment before milk “lets down” easily digestible has antibodies and antibacterial properties better for baby’s health Bottle Feeding: babies more likely to have allergies better option if mother is HIV-positive or using drugs Feeding on Demand

Malnutrition Severe Malnutrition brain does not have enough nutrition to develop normally no body reserves to protect from disease marasmus and kwashiorkor diseases are direct result of malnutrition

The First Two Years: Cognitive Development Chapter Six The First Two Years: Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Intelligence Sensoritmotor intelligence—active intelligence causing babies to think while using senses and motor skills

Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular Reactions The feedback loop involving the infants own body; infant senses motion and tries to make sense of it Stage 1 = Reflexes Stage 2 = First Acquired Adaptations adaptations of reflexes, i.e., sucking—new information taken in by senses and responded to

Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular Reactions, cont. Assimilation and Accommodation assimilation—taking in new information by incorporating it into previous knowledge accommodation— intake of new data to re-adjust, refine, expand prior schema or actions babies eagerly adapt their reflexes and senses to whatever experiences they have

Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular Reactions, cont. Sucking as a Stage-Two Adaptation begin adapting at about one month reflexive assimilation

Stages 3 and 4: Secondary Circular Reactions feedback loop involving people and objects Stage 3 = Making Interesting Events Last repetition awareness Stage 4 = New Adaptation and Anticipation goal-directed behavior object permanence

Stages 5 and 6: Tertiary Circular Reactions Feedback loop that involves active experimentation and exploration involves creativity, action, and ideas Stage 5 = New Means Through Active Experimentation little scientist

Stages 5 and 6: Tertiary Circular Reactions, cont. Stage 6 = New Means Through Mental Combinations mental combinations—sequence of mental actions tried out before actual performance deferred imitation—perception of something someone else does (modeling), then performing action at a later time

Piaget and Modern Research Habituation—process of getting used to an object or event through repeated exposure to it fMRI—functional magnetic resonance imaging measuring technique for brain activity and neurological responses First three years are prime time for cognitive development

Information Processing Information-processing theory— perspective that compares human thinking processes to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, stored memories, and output

Affordances Affordances—opportunities for perception and interaction offered by environment How something is perceived and acted upon depends on past experiences current developmental level sensory awareness of opportunities immediate needs and motivation

Sudden Drops Visual cliff measures depth perception, which is based not on maturity level but affordance depends on prior experience Object Constancy things remain what they are, despite changes in perception or appearance boundaries of three-dimensional objects

Movement and People Dynamic perception—1 of the 2 principles explaining infant perception; namely, that from birth perception is primed to focus on movement and change 2nd principle explaining infant perception is that babies are fascinated by people Infants most interested in emotional affordances of their caregivers

Memory Certain amount of experience and maturation in order to process and remember experiences In first year infants have great difficulty storing new memories Older children often unable to describe events that occurred when they were younger

Memory, cont. Very early memories possible if situation similar to real life motivation high special measures aid retrieval by acting as reminders

Reminders and Repetition Reminder session—any perceptual experience that helps a person recall an idea or experience

A Little Older, A Little More Memory After 6 months infants capable of retaining information for longer periods of time with less reminding Deferred imitation apparent after end of first year By middle of the 2nd year, children capable of remembering and reenacting complex sequences

A Little Older, A Little More Memory, cont. Memory is not just single entity; distinct brain regions for particular aspects of memory; humans have a memory for words images actions smells experiences “memorized” facts

Language: What Develops in Two Years? Most impressive intellectual achievement of young child and also of all humans

The Universal Sequence of Language Development Children around the world have the same sequence of early language development but timing and depth of linguistic ability vary

First Noises and Gestures Baby talk—high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive ways adults talk to babies Vocalization crying cooing Babbling deaf babies do it later and less frequently, but are more advanced in use of gestures

First Words First word and sentences at age of 1 year

The Language Explosion and Early Grammar Naming explosion—sudden increase in infant vocabulary, especially nouns, beginning at 18 months Holophrase—single word that expresses a complete, meaningful thought Grammar—all the methods that languages use to communicate meaning

Theories of Language Learning Even the very young use language well Three schools of thought infants are taught language infants teach themselves social impulses foster infant language

Theory 1: Infants are Taught Skinner’s reinforcement theory: quantity and quality of talking to child affects rate of language development (learned) parents are good instructors baby talk characterized by high pitch simpler vocabulary shorter sentence length more questions and commands repetition

Theory 2: Infants Teach Themselves Chomsky and LAD (Language Acquisition Device)—hypothesized neurological (inborn) structure that prewires all children for language, including basic aspects of intonation, grammar, and vocabulary infants innately ready to use their minds to understand and speak whatever language offered to them they are experience expectant

Theory Three: Social Impulses Foster Language Social-pragmatic—social reason for language: to communicate Infants seek to respond, which shows their being social in nature— and thus mutually dependent—by vocalizing babbling gesturing listening pointing

A Hybrid Theory Emergentist coalition—combination of valid aspects of several theories cortex contains many language centers nature provides several paths to learning language

The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development Chapter Seven The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development

Theories About Early Psychosocial Development Importance of parents and their contribution to emotional growth

Psychoanalytic Theory Connects biosocial and psychosocial development

Freud: Oral and Anal Stages Oral Stage—1st stage, where infant obtains pleasure through sucking and biting Anal Stage—2nd stage, where anus becomes main source of gratification, i.e., bowel movements and the control of them

Erikson: Trust and Autonomy 1st Stage—Trust vs. Mistrust basic needs need to be met with consistency, continuity, and sameness 2nd Stage—Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt basic desire to gain self-rule over their own actions and bodies and to feel ashamed if it doesn’t happen

Behaviorism Infant’s emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish child’s spontaneous behavior social learning adds to personality formation social referencing strengthens learning by observation

Cognitive Theory Individual’s thoughts and values determine perspective on the world Working model—set of assumptions used to organize perceptions and experiences

Epigenetic Theory Each child is born with a genetic predisposition to develop certain traits that affect emotional development Temperament—“constitutionally based individual differences in emotion, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation.” inhibited uninhibited epigenetic—though personality traits not learned, environment affects their expression

Research on Temperament: Nine Characteristics activity level rhythmicity approach-withdrawal adaptability intensity of reaction threshold of responsiveness quality of mood distractibility attention span

Temperament and Caregiving Inhibited vs. Uninhibited responsive care and encouragement can help inhibited children become less so Match between parent and child goodness of fit

Sociocultural Theory Emphasizes the many ways social context can have impact on infant-caregiver relationship If social context changes, child can change

Emotional Development in Infancy In the first 2 years of emotional development, infants progress from simple reactions to complex patterns of social awareness

The First Year Newborns’ first discernable emotions distress contentment Later emotions (after first weeks) anger fear, expressed clearly by stranger wariness and separation anxiety

The Second Year Fear and anger typically decrease Laughing, crying: more discriminating New emotions appear pride shame embarrassment guilt

Self-Awareness Foundation for emotional growth realization of individual distinctions At about 5 months begin developing a sense of self apart from mother 15-18 months the “Me-self” rouge experiment

Pride and Shame Self-awareness becomes linked with self-concept early on Negative comments more likely to lead to less pride or shame Own pride can be more compelling than parental approval

The Development of Social Bonds Social connections help us understand human emotions

Synchrony Synchrony—coordinated interaction; attunement Helps infants learn to express own feelings Imitation is pivotal Becomes more elaborate and more frequent with time Learning through play playful interactions by both partners important for both to be responsive

Attachment Enduring emotional connection Proximity-seeking behaviors Contact-maintaining behaviors

Secure and Insecure Attachment Bowlby and Ainsworth Secure—relationship of trust and confidence that provides comfort, assurance, and secure base

Secure and Insecure Attachment, cont. Insecure—relationship that is unpredictable or unstable avoidant: one person tries to avoid any connection with another resistant/ambivalent: anxiety and uncertainly keep one person clinging to another

Measuring Attachment Strange Situation—lab procedure to measure attachment; observed are exploration of the toys (caregiver present) reaction to caregiver’s departure reaction to caregiver’s return disorganized behavior—neither secure nor insecure attachment—marked by inconsistent behavior of caregiver and infant toward each other

Insecure Attachment as a Warning Sign Stressed mother (although not always an indicator) Mother too withdrawn Inconsistent behavior of mother (conflicting messages sent by her) Insecure attachments repairable

Social Referencing Looking to others for cues

Referencing Mom Look to mother for comfort Mother’s tone and expression can become guide to how to react to unfamiliar or ambiguous event

Referencing Dad Fathers play more than mothers Infants look to fathers for fun and physical play Physically active play with fathers may contribute to development of social skills and emotional expression Physically active play with fathers helps children master motor skills and develop muscle control

Cultural Differences Fathers, single mothers, grandparents, and cultures with other family structures still provide needed referencing Father’s involvement can benefit later development of child raise mother’s self-confidence and two parents working together are better able to meet infant’s needs than either alone

Infant Day Care Almost all infants cared for by people other than parents part of the time Specifics vary from culture to culture The older the child and the more money the family has, the more likely possibility of day care

Infant Day-Care Family day care Center care Day care generally beneficial High-quality programs include adequate attention to each infant encouragement of sensorimotor exploration and language development attention to health and safety well-trained professional caregivers

Poor day care has detrimental effects Infant Day Care, cont. Cognitive and biosocial development are more advanced by day care than at home Poor day care has detrimental effects

Conclusions in Theory and Practice No single theory stands out as best interpretation of developments during first 2 years Do not know the extent to which positive influence can compensate for negative one

Conclusions in Theory and Practice, cont. Parental attentiveness crucial to synchrony, attachment, and social referencing. In dealing with children with problems, need a practical rather than theoretical approach that focuses on their specific issues