Literature Review Documentation of comprehensive review of published & unpublished work from secondary sources of data in area of interest.

Literature Review A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to your selected area of study.  The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify this literature.  It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research. Works which are irrelevant should be discarded and those which are peripheral should be looked at critically.

Why a literature review? A critical review of the literature is necessary to help the students to develop a thorough understanding of and insight into previous research that relates to their research question(s) and objectives. Your review will set the research in context by critically discussing and referencing work that has already been undertaken, drawing out key points and presenting them in a logically argued way, and highlighting those areas where they will provide fresh insights. It will lead the reader into subsequent sections of their project report.

Why a literature review? In general, the literature review should: provide a context for the research justify the research ensure the research hasn't been done before (or if it is repeated, that it is marked as a "replication study") show where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge

Why do a literature review? enable the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject illustrate how the subject has been studied previously highlight flaws in previous research outline gaps in previous research show that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field help refine, refocus or even change the topic

Contents of critical review Include key academic theories in your area. Demonstrate that your knowledge is up to date Show how your research related to previous work. Assess strengths and weaknesses of previous works; like omissions or bias. Justify your arguments by referencing to previous research. Provide clear references to enable readers to see original work cited.

Structure There is no one correct structure for a critical review, although it is helpful to think of it as a funnel in which they start at a more general level prior to narrowing down to their specific research question(s) and objectives. Research Proposal Search the Internet Grouping of similar theories Critical analysis Final draft of review

CONDUCTING LITERATURE SURVEY Plan the literature search Identify the sources Extract the relevant information Writing up the review

Planning the Literature Search Defining the parameters Language Subject area Business sector Geographical area Publication period Literature type

Planning the Literature Search Defining the parameters Students often say “there is nothing written on my topic…” Because: Too narrow parameters Key words that don’t match control language

Planning the Literature Search Generating key words: these are basic terms that describe your research question and objective and used to search tertiary literature. Following techniques are used; Discussion with colleagues, tutor etc Initial reading Dictionaries, encyclopedias, handbooks. Brainstorming

Conducting the literature search Searching using tertiary literature sources Obtaining relevant literature referenced in books and journal articles you have already read Searching secondary literature in library Internet

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Literature sources can be divided into three categories: primary, secondary and tertiary. In reality, these categories often overlap. Their use of these resources will depend on their research question(s) and objectives. Some may use only tertiary and secondary literature. For others, they may need to locate primary literature as well.

Literature sources available

Identifying the sources Primary sources (grey literature ) Reports Theses Conference reports Company reports Govt. publications Unpublished data

Identifying the sources Secondary sources: News papers Books Journals/periodicals/magazines /serials Internet

Identifying the sources Tertiary sources: Indexes printed sources or Abstracts these are called databases if Full text accessed through computer. Catalogues Encyclopedias Dictionaries Bibliographies Citation indexes

Tertiary sources An index is a list of articles, books, chapters of books, reports, theses, conferences and research. It may include information like: Author(s) Date of publication Title Volume Page numbers etc Citation index Abstract

Extracting the information Make sure that you have taken the most relevant data, because irrelevant data shows your inefficiency in selection and comprehension of literature.

Writing up the literature review Key to writing a literature review is to link together the different ideas you find in the literature to form a coherent and cohesive argument. Start at more general level Provide brief overview of key ideas Summarize, compare, and contrast the work of key writers. Narrow down to highlight the most relevant work Provide details of findings Mention in which areas your research provides fresh insight. Lead the reader to coming sections which explore these issues.

Referencing in the literature review Documentation of relevant studies citing the author and the year of publication. There are three methods of citing references in literature review: 1- Publication Manual of American Psychological Association (APA) 2- Chicago Manual 3- The Harvard system. APA format is most widely used in contemporary research.

APA Format Text citations: Source material must be documented in the body of the paper by citing the author(s) and date(s) of the sources. The underlying principle is that ideas and words of others must be formally acknowledged. The reader can obtain the full source citation from the list of references that follows the body of the paper.

Text citations When the names of the authors of a source are part of the formal structure of the sentence, the year of publication appears in parentheses following the identification of the authors. Consider the following example: Wirth and Mitchell (1994) found that although there was a reduction in insulin dosage over a period of two weeks in the treatment condition compared to the control condition, the difference was not statistically significant.     [Note: and is used when multiple authors are identified as part of the formal structure of the sentence. Compare this to the example in the following section.] 

Text citations When the authors of a source are not  part of the formal structure of the sentence, both the authors and year of publication appear in parentheses. Consider the following example: Reviews of research on religion and health have concluded that at least some types of religious behaviors are related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Gartner, Larson, & Allen, 1991; Koenig, 1990; Levin & Vanderpool, 1991; Maton & Pargament, 1987; Paloma & Pendleton, 1991; Payne, Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991).      [Note: & is used when multiple authors are identified in parenthetical material. Note also that when several sources are cited parenthetically, they are ordered alphabetically by first authors' surnames and separated by semicolons.] 

Text citations When a source that has two authors is cited, both authors are included every time the source is cited.           When a source that has three, four, or five authors is cited, all authors are included the first time the source is cited. When that source is cited again, the first author's surname and "et al." are used (et al is a Latin word means and others) . Consider the following example: Reviews of research on religion and health have concluded that at least some types of religious behaviors are related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Payne, Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991).  Payne et al. (1991) showed that ... 

Text citations When a source that has six or more authors is cited, the first author's surname and "et al." are used every time the source is cited (including the first time). 

Text citations Every effort should be made to cite only sources that you have actually read. When it is necessary to cite a source that you have not read ("Grayson" in the following example) that is cited in a source that you have read ("Murzynski & Degelman" in the following example), use the following format for the text citation and list only the source you have read in the References list: Grayson (as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996) identified four components of body language that were related to judgments of vulnerability. 

Text citations To cite a personal communication (including letters, emails, and telephone interviews), include initials, surname, and as exact a date as possible. Because a personal communication is not "recoverable" information, it is not included in the References section. For the text citation, use the following format: B. F. Skinner (personal communication, February 12, 1978) claimed ... 

Text citations To cite a Web document, use the author-date format. If no author is identified, use the first few words of the title in place of the author. If no date is provided, use "n.d." in place of the date. Consider the following examples: Degelman and Harris (2000) provide guidelines for the use of APA writing style. Changes in Americans' views of gender status differences have been documented (Gender and Society, n.d.). 

Quotations Quotations: When a direct quotation is used, always include the author, year, and page number as part of the citation. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should be enclosed in double quotation marks and should be incorporated into the formal structure of the sentence. Example: Patients receiving prayer had "less congestive heart failure, required less diuretic and antibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes of pneumonia, had fewer cardiac arrests, and were less frequently intubated and ventilated" (Byrd, 1988, p. 829).  A lengthier quotation of 40 or more words should appear (without quotation marks) apart from the surrounding text, in block format, with each line indented five spaces from the left margin. 

References References: All sources included in the References section must be cited in the body of the paper (and all sources cited in the paper must be included in the References section). Pagination: The References section begins on a new page.          Heading: References (centered on the first line below the manuscript page header)          Format: The references (with hanging indent) begin on the line following the References heading. Entries are organized alphabetically by surnames of first authors. Most reference entries have three components:

References Authors: Authors are listed in the same order as specified in the source, using surnames and initials. Commas separate all authors. When there are seven or more authors, list the first six and then use "et al." for remaining authors. If no author is identified, the title of the document begins the reference.          Year of Publication: In parentheses following authors, with a period following the closing parenthesis. If no publication date is identified, use "n.d."  in parentheses following the authors.          Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume, pages (for journal article) or title, city of publication, publisher (for book). Italicize titles of books, titles of periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.

References References Aldridge, D. (1991). Spirituality, healing and medicine. British Journal of General Practice, 41, 425-427. Byrd, R. C. (1988). Positive therapeutic effects of intercessory prayer in a coronary care unit population. Southern Medical Journal, 81, 826-829. Dossey, L. (1997, March). Prayer as distant intentionality: An idea whose time has come. Paper presented at the meeting of Spirituality and Healing in Medicine-II, Los Angeles, CA. Finney, J. R., & Malony, H. N. (1985). Empirical studies of Christian prayer: A review of the literature. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 13, 104-115. Friedman, R., & Benson, H. (1997). Spirituality and medicine. Mind/Body Medicine, 2, 1-2. Gartner, J., Larson, D. B., & Allen, G. D. (1991). Religious commitment and mental health: A review of the empirical literature. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19, 6-25. Koenig, H. G. (1990). Research on religion and mental health in later life: A review and commentary. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 23-53.

References Larson, D. B., Sherrill, K. A., Lyons, J. S., Craigie, F. C., Thielman, S. B., Greenwold, M. A., et al. (1992). Associations between dimensions of religious commitment and mental health reported in the American Journal of Psychiatry and Archives of General Psychiatry: 1978- 1989. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 557-559. Levin, J. S., & Vanderpool, H. Y. (1991). Religious factors in physical health and the prevention of illness. Prevention in Human Services, 9(2), 41-64. Maton, K. I., & Pargament, K. I. (1987). The roles of religion in prevention and promotion. Prevention in Human Services, 5, 161-205. Matthews, D. A. (1997). Religion and spirituality in primary care. Mind/Body Medicine, 2, 9-19. McCullough, M. E. (1995) Prayer and health: Conceptual issues, research review, and research agenda. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 23, 15-29. Paloma, M. M., & Pendleton, B. F. (1991). The effects of prayer and prayer experiences on measures of general well-being. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19, 71-83. Distant Intercessory Prayer 9 Payne, I. R., Bergin, A. E., Bielema, K. A., & Jenkins, P. H. (1991). Review of religion and mental health: Prevention and the enhancement of psychosocial functioning. Prevention in Human Services, 9(2), 11-40. Schlitz, M. J. (1997, March). Healing effects of intercessory prayer and distance intentionality. Paper presented at the meeting of Spirituality and Healing in Medicine-II, Los Angeles, CA. Wirth, D. P., & Mitchell, B. J. (1994). Complementary healing therapy for patients with Type I diabetes mellitus. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 8, 367-377.

Examples of sources Journal article Murzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language of women and judgments of vulnerability to sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26,  1617-1626.          Book Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the psychology of religion  (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.          Web document on university program or department Web site Degelman, D., & Harris, M. L. (2000). APA style essentials. Retrieved May 18, 2000, from Vanguard University, Department of Psychology Web site: http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/index.aspx?doc_id=796 Stand-alone Web document (no date) Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable people in psychology of religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001, from  http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm Stand-alone Web document (no author, no date) Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2001, from http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/gender.html

Examples of sources Journal article from database Hien, D., & Honeyman, T. (2000). A closer look at the drug abuse-maternal aggression link. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 503-522. Retrieved May 20, 2000, from ProQuest database.   Abstract from secondary database Garrity, K., & Degelman, D. (1990). Effect of server introduction on restaurant tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 168-172. Abstract retrieved July 23, 2001, from PsycINFO database. Journal article, Internet-only journal Bergen, D. (2002, Spring). The role of pretend play in children's cognitive development. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 4(1). Retrieved February 1, 2004, from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/bergen.html Article or chapter in an edited book Shea, J. D. (1992). Religion and sexual adjustment. In J. F. Schumaker (Ed.), Religion and mental health (pp. 70-84). New York: Oxford University Press.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.