1939-1945 The Holocaust

Euthanasia Program Murder program which called for the systematic killing mentally and physically disabled patients living in institutions First mass-murder that pre-dated the genocide of European Jewry Aimed to eliminate “life unworthy of life” severe psychiatric, neurological, or physical disabilities represented at once a genetic and a financial burden upon German society and the state

Scope widened from infants & toddlers to up to 17 years old August 1939: doctors, nurses & midwives compelled to report any newborn infants and children under the age of 3 who showed signs of severe mental or physical disability October 1939: parents of children with disabilities encouraged to admit their children to a specially designated pediatric clinics Killing wards with specially recruited medical staff murdered their young children by lethal overdoses of medication or by starvation Scope widened from infants & toddlers to up to 17 years old Estimates of at least 5,000 perished as a result of this program

Fall 1939 killing program extended to adults with disabilities living in institutions Hitler signed a secret authorization which protected participating physicians, medical staff and administrators from prosecution Code named “T4” Sent questionnaire to all public health officials, public and private hospitals, mental institutions and nursing home under the guise of gathering statistical information Beginning January 1940, selected patients for the euthanasia program were removed and transported to one of the central gassing installations for killing

Within hours of arrival the victims perished in specially designed gas chambers, disguised as shower facilities, using pure carbon monoxide gas Bodies were then burned in crematoriums Ashes were sent back to families along with fictitious causes of death (natural death being very common) Secret program became public and protests ensued causing a halt to the program in August 1941 Estimated 70,273 died at the six gassing centers between January 1940 and August 1941

Adolf Hitler's authorization for the Euthanasia Program (Operation T4), signed in October 1939 but dated September 1, 1939. Oral history

Program extended until end of the war Second Phase Continued on a more concealed manner Drug overdose & lethal injection Many adults & children were starved to death Program extended until end of the war Expanded range of victims: geriatric patients, bombing victims, foreign forced laborers Historians estimate that the “Euthanasia” Program in all its phases claimed the lives of 200,000 individuals

Outside Germany others were killed due to being designated “life unworthy of life” Killing carried out by SS and police forces Mass killings, mobile gas vans Seen as a rehearsal for subsequent genocidal policies P. 60

Poland Policy in Poland to subdue the people then intensify the terror “Poles will become slaves to the German Empire” Daily executions throughout Poland of groups perceived as being a threat: University professors, politicians, clergy. WHY? 18% of all Polish priests were killed 1939-1945 Chelmno-47.8%, Lodz-36.8%, Poznan-31.1% Within 4 months of German invasion 80% of priests in one region were killed

Polish children that were sufficiently considered “German” were kidnapped and sent to be raised by German families German officers examine Polish children to determine whether they qualify as "Aryan." Poland, wartime. SS doctors examine Polish children judged "racially valuable" for adoption by Germans. Poland, October 1942.

Polish babies, chosen for their "Aryan" features, to be adopted and raised as ethnic Germans. Poland, wartime.

Other Targets Gypsies (Roma): exterminated to prevent racial mixing Jehovah’s Witnesses: would not enlist in army, participate in air-raid drills, or give up meetings, would not salute Hitler. They were “voluntary prisoners” – would be freed if they renounced their faith Homosexuals: against the law, identified by pink triangles in camps. Seen as a threat to Aryan breeding policy Freemasons: secret fraternal order that did not ban Jews. By 1935 all Masonic Lodges were closed and/or destroyed

Ghettos The term “ghetto” originated from the name of the Jewish quarter in Venice established in 1516 During WWI Ghettos were city districts in which the Germans concentrated the Jewish population and forced them to live under miserable conditions There were at least1,000 ghettos in German controlled Poland and the Soviet Union First ghetto established in October 1939

Some lasted a few days, others for months or years Ghettos segregated and controlled the Jewish population as the Nazi leadership deliberated over options to realize the goal of removing the Jewish population Some lasted a few days, others for months or years Largest ghetto – Warsaw ghetto, 400,000 in 1.3 square miles Map of Ghettos

Types of ghettos Closed (situated primarily in German-occupied Poland and the occupied Soviet Union) were closed off by walls, or by fences with barbed wire large number of Jews living in the surrounding areas to move into the closed ghetto, thus exacerbating the extremely crowded and unsanitary conditions. Starvation, chronic shortages, severe winter weather, inadequate and unheated housing, and the absence of adequate municipal services led to repeated outbreaks of epidemics and to a high mortality rate. Most ghettos were of this type.

Open ghettos Destruction ghettos had no walls or fences, but there were restrictions on entering and leaving. These existed in German-occupied Poland and the occupied Soviet Union Destruction ghettos were tightly sealed off and existed for between two and six weeks before the Germans and/or their collaborators deported or shot the Jewish population concentrated in them. These existed in German-occupied Soviet Union (especially in Lithuania and the Ukraine), as well as Hungary

Ghettos Ghettos became holding pens Jewish labor was exploited, goods and property were confiscated Ghetto life was one of squalor, disease, and despair 10-15 people lived in spaces that previously housed 4 Daily calorie allotments rarely exceeded 1100 (even with smuggling) Summer 1942 Germans began liquidating the ghettos. Within 18 months almost all ghettos of Poland were emptied Late summer 1944 nearly 3 million Jews had been transported to concentration camps and killing centers

Survivor Testimony ABRAHAM LEWENT BENO HELMER BLANKA ROTHSCHILD JUDITH MEISEL LEOPOLD PAGE LEAH HAMMERSTEIN SILVERSTEIN

Warsaw Ghetto One of the largest pre-war Jewish populations 375,000 or 30% of city’s total population November 1940 became a closed ghetto Germans practiced “clean violence” – death by starvation In 1941 nearly 1 in 10 ghetto residents died of starvation – 43,000 Orphanage run by Janusz Korczak. August 6, 1942 the Germans lined the 192 children up in rows of 4. Silently the children waited to board the trains. Korczak was offered a way to avoid the trains-he refused. He and the children were taken to Treblinka and gassed

Polish civilians walk by a section of the wall that separated the Warsaw ghetto from the rest of the city. Warsaw, Poland, 1940–1941 The type of "Aryan" identification card which Vladka Meed had used from 1940–1942 on the Aryan side of Warsaw, smuggling arms to Jewish fighters and helping Jews escape from the ghetto.

Ethel Stern Born: Warsaw, Poland 1919 Ethel was born to a Jewish family living in Warsaw. When she was 9, her family moved to the town of Mogielnica, about 40 miles southwest of Warsaw. Ethel's father spent much of his time studying religious texts. His wife managed the family liquor store. Ethel attended public school during the day and was tutored in religious studies in the evening. 1933-39: Ethel had always wanted to be a teacher. At age 14, after attending religious school in Lodz, she began to teach in the town of Kalisz, where her brother lived. There she was introduced by a matchmaker to Zalman Brokman, who first asked his rabbi and then Ethel's father for permission to marry her. In March 1939 they were married. When war began in September, Ethel returned to Mogielnica, six months pregnant. 1940-44: Ethel gave birth to a baby boy in January 1940 in Warsaw. By November, the Jews in Warsaw were confined to a ghetto. Ethel's husband traded gold pieces for food and goods. When mass deportations began in late 1942, those with sewing machines were allowed to remain in a factory to sew military garments, so Ethel's husband bought two machines. Ethel worked at the factory until it was liquidated in 1943. In May 1943 the garment factory workers were deported to the Trawniki labor camp near Lublin. Ethel was never heard from again. Ethel Stern Born: Warsaw, Poland 1919

Oral Stories Roundup in the ghetto link Lack of burial for the corpses link Conditions in the ghetto link Film footage conditions film 2 After the Germans established the Warsaw ghetto in October 1940, conditions deteriorated rapidly. The Germans strictly controlled the movement of goods into and out of the ghetto. There was not enough food to feed the ghetto residents. At great personal risk, many Jews attempted to smuggle in food. The German food ration for Warsaw ghetto inhabitants amounted to less than 10 percent of the ration for a German citizen. Thousands of Jew died in Warsaw each month because of starvation or disease. The Nazis sealed the Warsaw ghetto in mid-November 1940. German-induced overcrowding and food shortages led to an extremely high mortality rate in the ghetto. Almost 30 percent of the population of Warsaw was packed into 2.4 percent of the city's area. The Germans set a food ration for Jews at just 181 calories a day. By August 1941, more than 5,000 people a month succumbed to starvation and disease.

Lodz Ghetto Industrial center of Poland Jews were 1/3 of the Lodz population Ghetto was sealed in April 1940, 164,000 Jews lived in 48,100 rooms most without running water or sewer connections In operation until 1944, longest running of all the ghettos

A German postcard showing the entrance to the Lodz ghetto A German postcard showing the entrance to the Lodz ghetto. The sign reads "Jewish residential area—entry forbidden." Lodz, Poland, 1940-1941 Jews deported to the Lodz ghetto. Poland, 1941 or 1942 German police raid a vandalized Jewish home in the Lodz ghetto. Lodz, Poland, ca. 1942

Documenting the stories Lodz had a group of journalists and historians who formally recorded the details of ghetto life Kovno had several photographic chroniclers Personal diaries and journals

Photograph taken by George Kadish: a member of the Kovno ghetto underground hides supplies in a well used as the entrance to a hiding place in the ghetto. Kovno, Lithuania, 1942. One of the two milk cans in which portions of the Ringelblum Oneg Shabbat archives were hidden and buried in the Warsaw ghetto.

1941 Germany invaded the Soviet Union Advanced to the outskirts of Moscow Fighting a war on 2 fronts Saw the Slavs as inferior to the German Aryan race – made the killing of these inferior races essential Turning point of the Holocaust

Einsatzgruppen Mobile killing units that traveled with the German Army, 13,000 men They were a unit of the SS and police In the Soviet Union their assignment was to murder those perceived to be racial or political enemies behind German combat lines in the occupied Soviet Union At first the Einsatzgruppen shot primarily Jewish men. By late summer 1941, however, wherever the Einsatzgruppen went, they shot Jewish men, women, and children without regard for age or sex, and buried them in mass graves.

Locals helped identify Jews to the Einsatzgruppen Jews were marched or transported by truck to the execution site, where trenches had been prepared. In some cases the captive victims had to dig their own graves. After the victims had handed over their valuables and undressed, men, women, and children were shot, either standing before the open trench, or lying face down in the prepared pit

Shooting was the most common form of killing The psychological burden that mass shootings produced on the men prompted the Germans to find a more convenient mode Gas vans – enclosed cargo van that piped the carbon monoxide from the van’s exhaust into the sealed cargo area, killing all inside By spring 1943 they had killed over 1 million Soviet Jews Mobile units proved inefficient and psychologically burdensome to the killers Killing centers created

Members of an Einsatzkommando (mobile killing squad) before shooting a Jewish youth. The boy's murdered family lies in front of him; the men to the left are ethnic Germans aiding the squad. Slarow, Soviet Union, July 4, 1941 Over one thousand Jews from the Ukrainian town of Lubny, ordered to assemble for "resettlement," in an open field before they were massacred by Einsatzgruppen. Lubny, Soviet Union, October 16, 1941.

Roundup of the Jews of Lubny, shortly before they were massacred by Einsatzgruppe detachments. This photo, originally in color, was part of a series taken by a German military photographer. Copies from this collection were later used as evidence in war crimes trials. Lubny, Soviet Union, October 16, 1941. Ukrainian Jews who were forced to undress before they were massacred by Einsatzgruppe detachments. This photo, originally in color, was part of a series taken by a German military photographer. Copies from this collection were later used as evidence in war crimes trials. Lubny, Soviet Union, October 16, 1941

Jewish men and boys await their extermination in an athletic field near Lomazy in August 18, 1942. They were marched from this place for about 1000 yds (into the woods) where 50 or so Jews had been forced to dig a large pit earlier in the day. 1600 Jews were shot this day and details of them being tortured and brutalized while being murdered are documented. The pit filled with water (being below the waterline) and many died from suffocation and drowning as the heap of bodies above them forced them downwards. Einsatzkommandos lining women & children after having them undress. Notice pregnant woman to the right. No one, not even infants & children were spared. The extreme antisemitism of the German's dictated the doctrine that Jewish women and children must be destroyed because they represented the future of European Jewry. This action took place on the outskirts of the Mizoc Ghetto on October 14, 1942 Afterwards. After being made to lie down, each person was shot in the neck at the base of the head. Notice adults shielding their children. During roundups, any Jew unable for any reason not to show up in the market place or designated assembly area was shot onsite. Any Jew found after a roundup action was immediately shot In the beginning, graves were not even dug, natural pits and depressions in the earth were used and the burial detail was left for the locals to handle. Most non-Jewish locals were anti-Semitic to the point that they helped the Germans. Anti-semitism had reached a boiling-point in Europe, and no where was it worse than in Germany, Poland, the Ukraine & Lithuania.

Typical massacre as described by an Einsatzgruppen commander: “The Einsatz unit would enter a village or town and order the prominent Jewish citizens to call together all Jews for the purpose of “resettlement”. They were requested to hand over their valuables and shortly before execution to surrender their outer clothing. They were transported to the place of executions, usually an antitank ditch, in trucks-always only as many as could be executed immediately….Then they were shot, kneeling or standing….and the corpses thrown into the ditch.” Map Video Oral history From a survivor: “I saw them do the killing. At 5:00 pm they gave the command “Fill the pits.” Screams and groans were coming from the pits. Suddenly I saw my neighbor Ruderman rise from under the soil….His eyes were bloody and he was screaming: “Finish me off!”…..A murdered woman lay at my feet. A boy of five years crawled out from under her body and began to scream desperately, “Mommy!” That was all I say since I fell unconscious.”

The Men of the Einsatzgruppen Historians are divided about their motivations One…they are ordinary men in extraordinary circumstances who gradually overcame their moral inhibitions Two….they are Germans who became willing executioners, sharing in the same vision of exterminationist anti-Semitism What do you think? Either way – they chose to become killers either willingly or reluctantly

Heavy drinking was common among the men of Einsatzgruppen One leader claims “he never permitted the shooting of individuals but ordered that several of the men should shoot at the same time in order to avoid direct personal responsibility” Others “demanded the victims lie down flat on the ground to be shot through the nape of the neck” When asked why “It was psychologically an immense burden to bear” Heavy drinking was common among the men of Einsatzgruppen To relieve this psychological burden on the men, killing centers were created 1.2 millions Jews were killed by the Einsatzgruppen one by one

Babi Yar Sept 1941 the city of Kiev was under Nazi control. An order was issued to kill all the Jews in Kiev Remaining Jews (about 60,000) were marched to the Babi Yar Ravine and executed This was one of the largest mass murders at an individual location during World War II 33,771 Jews were massacred in two days In the months following the massacre over 100,000 were killed at Babi Yar Map

P. 97 witness P. 98 survivor August 1943 in the face of defeat by the Soviets, the mass graves at Babi Yar were dug up and the bodies burned in an attempt to get rid of the evidence of mass murder Work was done by concentration camp workers. After more than a month of digging and burning – the workers were killed. 25 escaped and 15 survived to tell the story

No monument or headstone was erected at the site of the massacre until 1974 with no victim names nor was the word Jew used on the memorial

Wansee Conference January 20, 1942 15 high ranking Nazi officials meet in Wansee, a suburb of Berlin SS General Reinhard Heydrich, SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf Eichmann, Purpose: Discuss & coordinate the implementation of what they called “The Final Solution of the Jewish Question”

The Final Solution Code name for the systematic, deliberate, physical annihilation of the European Jews Authorized by Hitler sometime in 1941 Heydrich convened conference not to deliberate whether such a plan should be undertaken, but instead discussed the implementation of a policy decision that had already been made at the highest level of the Nazi regime

Objectives of meeting: (1) to inform and secure support from government ministries and other interested agencies relevant to the implementation of the “Final Solution” (2) to disclose to the participants that Hitler himself had tasked Heydrich and the RSHA with coordinating the operation None of the officials present at the meeting objected to the Final Solution policy that Heydrich announced. Heydrich indicated that approximately 11,000,000 Jews in Europe would fall under the provisions of the "Final Solution"