VISUALIZIN G Prepared By: Dawn More, Algonquin College

Chapter 8: Neuroscience, Evolution and the Biology of Behaviour Media Enhanced PowerPoint  Presentation Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 2

Lecture Overview Thinking Language Intelligence The Intelligence Controversy Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 3

Chapter Introduction Thinking, language, and intelligence are often studied under the larger topic of cognition (mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge). Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd4

Thinking Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd5 1.Explain the role of the prefrontal cortex in thinking. 2.Describe how mental images, concepts, and prototypes enable thinking. 3.Identify the three steps involved in problem solving. 4.Summarize how biases and heuristics can hamper problem solving. 5.Explain Sternberg and Lubart’s investment theory of creativity. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Thinking—Cognitive Building Blocks Cognitive building blocks Thinking processes are distributed throughout the brain, especially the frontal lobe. Mental Image : mental representation of a previously stored sensory experience, including visual, auditory, etc. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd6

Thinking—Cognitive Building Blocks (Concepts) Concepts: mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics – How do we learn concepts? Artificial concepts: formed by logical, specific rules Natural concepts/prototypes: formed by everyday life experiences Hierarchies: group concepts into subcategories within broader categories Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd7

Pause and Reflect: Check & Review How is this child learning the concept of “footsteps”? Is it an artificial concept, a natural concept, or a hierarchy ? Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd8

Thinking—Cognitive Building Blocks Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd An example of prototypes 9

Thinking—Cognitive Building Blocks Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd An example of hierarchies 10

Thinking—Problem Solving  Step 1: Preparation—identifying, separating, and defining  Step 2: Production—generating possible solutions (hypotheses) by using algorithms and heuristics  Step 3: Evaluation—judging hypotheses in Step 2 against the criteria in Step 1 Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd11

Thinking – Problem Solving Continued Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd12

Thinking – Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving Mental Set: persistence in using strategies that have worked in the past – Using no more than four lines, can you connect all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the paper? Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd13

Thinking – Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving To overcome a mental set you must “think outside the box”— literally! Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd14

Barriers to Problem Functional Fixedness: thinking of an object as only functioning in its usual way 15 Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving Confirmation Bias: preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence Availability Heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on how readily available other instances are in memory Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd16

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving Representativeness Heuristic: estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match (or represent) a previous prototype Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 17

Pause and Reflect: Check & Review Overestimating the dangers of flying is an example of the availability heuristic or the representativeness heuristic? Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd18

Thinking - Creativity Creativity: the ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way – Three elements of creativity: Originality Fluency Flexibility Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd19

Thinking -Creativity Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd20

Thinking - Creativity  Divergent thinking: ability to produce many alternatives or ideas; linked to creativity (e.g., reordering the letters “grevenidt” to form many new words)  Convergent thinking: attempting to find one correct answer; linked to conventional, non-creative thinking (e.g., = ?) Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd21

Thinking - Creativity Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd22

Pause and Reflect: Why Study Psychology? Psychology offers fun, do-it-yourself tests Test your creativity: Arrange 10 coins in this same configuration. By only moving two coins, can you create two rows of six coins? Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd23

Thinking - Creativity How did you do? Did you think of this creative solution to the 10 coin problem? Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd24

Language Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 1.Identify the building blocks of language. 2.Describe the prominent theories of how language and thought interact. 3.Describe the major stages of language development. 4.Review the evidence that non-human animals may be able to learn and use language. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 25

Language Language: a form of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specified rules Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd26

Language - Three Building Blocks Phoneme : smallest unit of speech or sound Morpheme : smallest meaningful unit of language Grammar : rules specifying how phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases should be combined to express thoughts – Syntax : rules for word order – Semantics : system of using words to create meaning Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd27

Language: Three Building Blocks (continued) Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd Figure

Language Development Prelinguistic Stage: crying, cooing, and babbling – Baby Sign: infants as young as 9 months can learn symbolic gestures Linguistic Stage: single-utterances, telegraphic speech, and learning the rules of grammar Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd29

Theories of Language Development Nature perspective: language is an inborn capacity that develops primarily by maturation – Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD) Nurture perspective: language develops from a complex system of rewards, punishments, and imitation 30 Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd

Animals and Language Some of the most successful nonhuman animal language studies have used American Sign Language (ASL). 31 Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd

Intelligence Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 1.Review the debate about single versus multiple intelligences. 2.Identify the similarities and differences between two commonly used IQ tests. 3.Explain why standardization, reliability, and validity are all essential to scientifically acceptable IQ tests. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 32

Intelligence Intelligence: global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment Intelligence is a hypothetical, abstract construct. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd33

What Is Intelligence? Historical views of intelligence: 1. Single ability or general factor called “g” (Spearman) 2. Multiple abilities (Thurstone and Guilford) 3. Single ability with two types of g, fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattell) 4. Multiple abilities (Gardner and Sternberg) Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd34

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd35

Intelligence Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd36

Measuring Intelligence Stanford-Binet and Wechsler most widely used individual intelligence tests. Both tests compute an intelligence quotient (IQ), which compares the deviation of a person’s test score to norms for that person’s age group. – Original version of Stanford-Binet (IQ = mental age ÷ actual age x 100) Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd37

Measuring Intelligence- The Average Distribution of IQ Scores Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd Figure

Measuring Intelligence - Sample Wechsler Tests Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 39

Measuring Intelligence Three scientific standards for psychological tests: 1.Standardization—establishes norms and uniform procedures for giving and scoring tests 2.Reliability—measure of the consistency and stability of test scores over time 3.Validity—ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd40

Pause and Reflect: Check & Review 1.Why is it important to recognize that intelligence is a hypothetical, abstract concept? 2.Briefly explain how reliability differs from validity. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd41

The Intelligence Controversy Copyright ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd 1.Explain why extremes in intelligence provide support for the validity of IQ testing. 2.Review research on how brain functioning is related to intelligence. 3.Describe how genetics and environment interact to shape intelligence. 4.Summarize the debate over ethnicity and intelligence. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 42

The Intelligence Controversy – Extremes in Intelligence Developmental disability: IQs of 70 and below Mental giftedness: IQs of 135 and above Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd43

The Intelligence Controversy: Explaining Differences Is it the brain? All mental activity (including intelligence) results from neural activity in the brain. Is it genetic or environmental influences? Heredity and environment are important, inseparable factors in intellectual development. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd44

An Example of Genetic vs. Environmental Influences on Intelligence Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd45

The Intelligence Controversy: Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased? Some ethnic groups score differently on IQ tests, but there are numerous contributing factors, including stereotype threat. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd46

Pause and Reflect: Critical Thinking Given that some ethnic groups do score differently on standard IQ tests, do you believe they should no longer be administered in schools? Why or why not? Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd47

Multimedia Time to Think? The question in a larger context: Brain=behavior? What Kind of Thinker are You? Are you as musical as Mozart? Or are you a wordsmith like Wordsworth? Try our quiz to find out what your thinking style is. Study This study investigates how people make probability judgements. It will involve making 3 ratings of probability. More detailed information with regard to the nature of the study will be provided after participation. On Defining Creativity An inventor should be defined as someone who doesn't take his education too seriously. Creative Problem - Solving Test Do you typically approach a problem from many perspectives or opt for the same old solution that worked in the past? In his work on human motivation, Robert E. Franken states that in order to be creative, you need to be able to view things from different perspectives. What is Language? Many animal and even plant species communicate with each other. Humans are not unique in this capability. However, human language is unique in being a symbolic communication system that is learned instead of biologically inherited. Analysis of Language Linguists divide the study of spoken language into two categories--phonology and grammar. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd48 Web Links

Multimedia The Connection Between Thought and Language Being able to speak means being able to produce sounds that are recognized by a group as conveying meaning according to established conventions. Hence a language is a finite system of units of sound that are combined in a specific order to form words. These words serve as symbols that are arbitrarily related to objects. And combining these words into sentences makes it possible to convey an infinite variety of information. Babies and Sign Language Child Language Development and Acquisition in Babies, Toddlers, and Preschoolers Language Development Stages – Skills & What to Do Many parents have no idea of how to encourage a child through the different language development stages. Toddler Language Development A Specialist Paediatric Speech and Language Therapist outlines the early communication, speech and language development of babies and toddlers. Baby Talk How early can babies tell “baby talk” from real language? Language Learning New research is shedding light on the question of whether babies think before they learn a language. This ScienCentral News video has more. Learning from Babies Scientific researchers who use human subjects in their work rely on their ability to speak or write to find out what they want to know. But as this Sciencentral News video reports, researchers who learn from babies don't have that luxury.. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd49 Web Links

Multimedia Viki Clip Index Apes are very similar to man, at least physiologically, but their psychological similarity remains a mystery. Koko.org The Gorilla Foundation Human Intelligence This site includes biographical profiles of people who have influenced the development of intelligence theory and testing, in-depth articles exploring current controversies related to human intelligence, and resources for teachers. Theories of Intelligence There are a whole host of theories about intelligence, none of which really agree with each other. Every approach to thinking or the mind comes up with it's own different theory of what intelligence is, each from it's own different perspective, with it's own assumptions, and often contradicting at least one other theory. General Intelligence General Intelligence is that which you measure when your IQ test has been optimized to remove the specific types of bias that mean that two people with the same amount of intelligence give different results on different tests. Intelligence: One Versus Many There are basically two camps on the theory of intelligence: those who believe in one unilinear construct of general intelligence (g), and those who believe in many different intelligences. IQTest.com Our original IQ test is the most scientifically valid IQ test available on the web today. IQ Test Labs Take our free PhD certified IQ test to get your score and find out how you rank. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd50 Web Links

Multimedia Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests were invented in 1904 by Dr Alfred Binet, in response to a request of the French minister of education for a way of distinguishing the gifted, normal and challenged children in the school system so that the education that they received could be delivered at the right level. Brain Neuroplasticity and Brain Development in Children Did you know that 90% of a child's brain develops during the first 5 years of life? Baby brain development sets the stage for the child's intelligence, emotional stability and personality. Brainy Brains The size of your brain doesn't necessarily determine how smart you are. Brain researchers say how your brain thickens and thins when you're a kid has a bigger influence on your IQ. This ScienCentral News video has more. The Genetic Basis of Intelligence Intelligence is a very difficult concept to define. Intellect is described as “the power of the mind to think in a logical manner and acquire knowledge” [1]. Even psychology experts have not agreed upon what this actually means [2]. Intelligence can be divided into various subcategories such as reasoning, problem solving, and memory, and so creating a consistent scale by which one can measure intelligence is quite difficult. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd51 Web Links

Multimedia How to Talk to Kids (1:23) Some kids are better than others at understanding complex language. Scientists thought this was an in- born ability. But as this ScienCentral News video reports, new research shows that the way we speak to children has a huge effect. Bird Brain Gene (1:24) Human speech and bird song may have more in common than we know, according to scientists at Duke University. As this ScienCentral News video reports, the research could lead to new progress for people with genetic speech disorders. Monkey Talk (1:22) Researchers have discovered that some monkeys process the sounds of other monkeys in their brains much like the way people process language. As this ScienCentral News video reports, it's a discovery that may lead to a better understanding of how people acquired the ability to communicate. Smart Robots (1:31) Imagine a robot that can smile, frown, and even react to your expressions and emotions. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd52 Videos

Multimedia Problem Solving Everyone encounters problems from time to time, from changing a flat tire to finding a compatible dating partner. But the ability to solve problems – both major and minor – effectively is a critical aspect of our intellectual functioning. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Canada Ltd53 Animations

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