1. Cognitive Processes: Thinking and Problem Solving
Psychology I
Mrs. Hart

2. The Candle Problem
The Candle Problem is a classic test of creative problem solving developed by psychologist Karl Duncker in Subjects are given a candle, a box of thumbtacks, and a book of matches, and asked to affix the lit candle to the wall so that it will not drip wax onto the table below. The test challenges functional fixedness, a cognitive bias that makes it difficult to use familiar objects in abnormal ways.

3. Thinking
Thinking:  changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new information. 
Four units of thought: image, symbol, concept, and rule.

4. Image
Image: a visual, mental representation of a specific event or object. a. Contains only the highlights of the original. b. Imaging is an effective way to think about concepts.

5. Mental Imagery Study
Researchers : Shepard and Metzler, (1971):
Experiment:  presented participants with 1,600 pairs geometric images. The researchers then asked the participants to determine if the objects in each pair were identical or different.
Three of the four shapes at the right are the same as each other, only rotated. The fourth is different; it’s a mirror image of the others. Which one is it?

6. Mental Imagery Study
Conclusion:  The researchers discovered that the participants completed the task by rotating an image of one of the objects in their minds in an effort to see both patterns from the same perspective.

7. Mental Imagery Study
Researcher: Steven Kosslyn Experiment: Participants were asked to imagine animals standing next to each other, with one being bigger than the other. Conclusion: Visual imagination produces “little models, which can be manipulated much like actual objects.”

8. Symbols quality. Most common examples: words, punctuation, numbers
Symbol: an abstract unit of thought that represents an object or
quality.
Most common examples: words, punctuation, numbers
  How symbols differ from images:  An image represents a specific
  sight or sound, but a symbol may have a number of meanings.
               
Key Point: Symbols differ from the things they represent
and enable us to think about things that are present, while
allowing us to consider the past and future.

10. Concept
Concept: a label for a class of objects or events that have at least
one attribute in common.
Examples: animals, music, liquid, and stores
Key points: ▪ Concepts are stored in memory using complex networks, and enable us to chunk large amounts of information. ▪ We do not have to treat every new piece of information as unique, since we already know something about the class of objects or experiences to which the new item belong.

11. Prototype and Rule Prototype: a representative example of a concept.
Example: Vehicle is a concept, and a prototype would be a car or truck.
Rule: a statement of relation between concepts.
   

12. Units of Thought Key Points
1) Images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules are the building blocks of mental activity. 2) They provide an economical and efficient way for people to represent reality. 3) They make it easier to manipulate and reorganize reality. 4) We use them to devise new ways of acting.

13. Kinds of Thinking
People think in different ways, thus there are different ways in looking at the world. Three types of thinking are: ▪ convergent or directed thinking ▪ divergent or non-directed thinking ▪ metacognition

15. A convergent thinker sees a limited,
Convergent Thinking
Convergent thinking is a systematic and logical attempt to reach a specific goal or answer a question. It is deliberate and purposeful, and helps people to formulate and follow rules.
A convergent thinker sees a limited,
predetermined number of options.

17. Divergent Thinking
Divergent or non-directed thinking, consists of a free flow of thoughts with no particular plan, and depends more on images. It opens up a one’s mind in all directions and opens possibilities in life because it leads a person to look for all options.

18. Metacognition
Metacognition is thinking about thinking. Metacognitive skills help a person to figure out different strategies to overcome obstacles.

19. Problem Solving
The term problem solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems. To do this, a person must understand the exact nature of the problem itself.

20. Finding a Solution
Solving a problem takes a specific method or approach, depending on the problem. ● Break down the problem into smaller, more workable sub-goals. ● Work backwards from the goal that’s been set. ● Look for similarities between a current problem and one from the past. ● Use a heuristic, algorithm, or trial and error.

21. Algorithms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0xgjUhEG3U
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct solution, however it is not always the best approach to problem solving. This method can be time-consuming.

22. Heuristics A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy
that may or may not work in certain situations.
They are experimental strategies that simplify
a problem allowing it to be solved simply and
quickly. However they don’t always guarantee
a correct solution.

23. Trial-and-Error
A trial and error type of approach to problem solving involves trying a number of solutions and ruling out what does not work. This approach works if you have a limited number of options, but another technique might be better to use if there are too many different choices.

24. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Functional fixedness:
tendency to view
problems only in their
customary manner.
Irrelevant to missing
information: can lead to
faulty solutions; need to
focus on what’s important.

25. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Assumptions: information that’s too general or false can prevent certain solutions.
Mental set: tendency to only use solutions that have worked in the past, rather than looking for alternative ideas.

26. Problem Solving and Creativity
The ability to use information in such a way that
the result is somehow new, original, and
meaningful is creativity.
Characteristics of creativity include:
flexibility – ability to overcome rigidity
recombination – new mental arrange of elements
insight – solution by recombination of elements

27. Cultivating Creativity
Be curious
Creativity is limitless
Focus on the process
Be spontaneous
Don’t be discouraged
Everyone is creative