Chapter 7: Memory: Remembrance of Things Past – and Future Lectures 10 & 11

Learning Outcomes Define memory and differentiate between types of memories. Explain the process of memory. Explain the stages of memory.

Learning Outcomes Identify contributors to forgetting. Describe the biological aspects of memory.

If you can see, you have a photographic memory. Truth or Fiction? A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone. If you can see, you have a photographic memory. Truth of Fiction? A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone. True. Truth or Fiction? If you can see, you have a photographic memory. True.

Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. Truth or Fiction? Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party. Truth or Fiction? Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. False. Truth or Fiction? It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party. True.

Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, 2001. Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. False. Fiction or Truth? You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, 2001. True.

Truth or Fiction? If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on. Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa. Truth or Fiction? If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on. True. Truth or Fiction? Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa. True.

Exercise Appearance Chestnut Patient Count the number of letters in those words Self Assessment: Five Challenges to Your Memory -- See text, page 142 for a series of memory challenges.

Exercise Last line: Examine the following drawings for 1 min. Then copy the names of the figures oh sheet of paper. Soon I’ll be asking you to draw those figures.

Memory Systems Self Assessment: Five Challenges to Your Memory -- See text, page 142 for a series of memory challenges.

1. Explicit Versus Implicit Memories Explicit memory – declarative memory Memory for specific information; that can be stated or declared Information can be autobiographical or general Implicit memory – nondeclarative memory Memory of how to perform a procedure or skill Skill memories

2. Explicit (Declarative) Memory Episodic memory – autobiographical memory Memories of things that happen to us or take place in our presence Autobiographical memories “I remember….” Semantic memory General knowledge “I know …..”

3. Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative) Procedural memory, – Motor Skills memory Simple classically conditioned responses (CR) Things done repeatedly – habits Attitude Formation (e.g., False Fame Effect Study) Repetition priming (NEXT) Truth of Fiction? A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone. True. When asked for the phone numbers of people she knew, she had had no answer. She could not declare her mother’s phone number. She could not make the number explicit. But dialing her mother’s phone number was a habit, and she did it on automatic pilot. She had been primed for the task by dialing the number thousands of times

Complete the stems App__________ Che__________ Pat___________

4. Priming It was demonstration of priming - Identifying or processing stimulus that has been experienced previously. Memory of things that reflect repetition that makes associations automatic Memory of the alphabet or multiplication tables Requires less neural activity Example w/elephant

5. Retrospective Memory Versus Prospective Memory Recalling information previously learned Episodic, semantic and implicit memories Prospective memory Remembering to do things in the future May fail due to preoccupation or distraction

6. Prospective Memory Prospective memory tasks Habitual tasks Easier to remember than occasional tasks Event-based tasks Triggered by events Time-based tasks Performed at a certain time or after a certain time has elapsed

7. Influences on Retrospective and Prospective Memory Age related decline More related to speed of cognitive processing than loss of information Moods and attitudes and prospective memory Depressed people less likely to push to remind themselves to do what they intend to do

Memory- as Information Processing

8. Encoding Transforming information into psychological formulas that can be represented mentally Visual – represented as a picture Auditory – represented as sounds Semantic – represented in terms of meanings Encoding- Info is acquired and processed into neural code (just as info is entered with a keyboard) Codes: Visual, auditory, semantic. Give example from real life:

Storage means maintaining info over time OR The retention of encoded representations over time that corresponds to some changes in the nervous system that registers the event. Methods of storing information Maintenance rehearsal Elaborative rehearsal Truth or Fiction? Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it. False. Maintenance rehearsal or mentally repeating is adequate.

10.Retrieval Locating information and returning it to consciousness Retrieval relies on cues Students’ Examples

Process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. 11. Definition of Memory Process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Stages of Memory

12. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory Stages determine whether and how long information is stored Three stages of memory Sensory memory Short-term memory (STM) Long-term memory (LTM)

Three Stages of Memory Figure 7.1 Three Stages of Memory. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that there are three stages of memory: (a) sensory memory, (b) short-term memory, and (c) long-term memory. Part A shows that sensory information impacts upon the registers of sensory memory. Memory of it can be transferred to short-term memory before decaying. If we attend to the information, much of it can be transferred to short-term memory (STM). Part B: Information may be maintained in STM through rehearsal – maintenance rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal. Otherwise, it may decay or be displaced. Part C: Once information is transferred to long-term memory (LTM), it may be filed away indefinitely. However, if the information in LTM is organized poorly, or if we cannot find cues to retrieve it, it can be lost. Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych to access an interactive version of this figure.

First stage of memory encountered by a stimulus 13. Sensory Memory First stage of memory encountered by a stimulus Holds impressions briefly, but long enough so series of perceptions become psychologically continuous Capacity: large Duration: visual, 1/10 sec.; auditory: 2sec. Info lost through: Decays Displacement Memory trace – An assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus. Memory traces are said to be “held” in sensory registers.

14. Short-Term Memory OR Working Memory STM- The memory system that codes info according to sound and holds about 7 items (+ or - 2) for less than 30 sec Also called working memory Prefrontal Cortex Truth or Fiction? It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party. True. You need to rehearse new information in order to “save” it but you may only need the proper cue to retrieve information from your long-term memory.

15. Serial Position Effect Tendency to recall the first and last items in a series May be more attention to first and last items May rehearse first item more often and last most recently

16. Chunking Grouping of stimuli that is perceived as a discrete piece of information Number of items held in STM – Seven (plus or minus two) Chunking stimuli allows for semantic coding

17. Interference in Short-Term Memory Attention to distracting information interferes with STM Appearance of new information in STM displaces old information (e.g., desk )

18. The Effect of Interference on Short-Term Memory Figure 7.3 The Effect of Interference on Short-Term Memory. In this experiment, college students were asked to remember a series of three letters while they counted backward by threes. After just 3 seconds, retention was cut in half. Ability to recall the words was almost completely lost by 15 seconds.

19. Human Memory PLAY VIDEO Human Memory. Gordon Bower piece on development on long term memory. PLAY VIDEO

Vast storehouse of information Long-term memories are distorted 20. Long-Term Memory Vast storehouse of information Long-term memories are distorted Schemas bias our memories Schema is a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or expectation, that can influence our perception of persons, objects, & situations. There is no limit for amount of information stored in long-term memory (LTM) Long-term memories may last a life-time Not lost by displacement Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. False.

21. Memory as Reconstructive Please reconstruct the drawings shown in the beginning of the lecture. Truth or Fiction? All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly. False.

22. Memory as Reconstructive Figure 7.4 Memory as Reconstructive. In their classic experiment, Carmichael, Hogan, and Walter (1932) showed people the figures in the left-hand box and made remarks as suggested in the other boxes. For example, the experimenter might say, “This drawing looks like eyeglasses (or a dumbbell).” When people later reconstructed the drawings, they were influenced by the labels.

23. Levels of Processing Model of Memory Memories endure when processed deeply Attention, encoding, storing, retrieval all involved

Tend to remember events that are important and emotionally stirring 24. Flashbulb Memories Tend to remember events that are important and emotionally stirring Memories are more distinctive Increased networks of association, that is we are likely to rehearse them elaboratively. Our rehearsal may include great expectations, or deep fears, for the future Elaborative rehearsal Secretion of stress hormones, help curve events into memory- “as almost to leave a scar upon the cerebral tissues.” Fiction or Truth? You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, 2001. True.

25. Organization in Long-Term Memory Categorization of information Hierarchical structure When items are correctly organized in long-term memory, you are more likely to recall-or know-accurate info about them. E.g. Do you remember if Whales breathe underwater?

26. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon “Feeling of knowing” Acoustic and semantic coding may help provide a useful retrieval cue May reflect incomplete learning Elaborative rehearsal did not take place The experience may be so new that Elaborative rehearsal does not take place, or semantic and acoustic coding does not occur. The problem lies not in retrieval, but in the original process of learning and memory- that is, encoding and storage.

27. Context and State Dependent Memory Context dependent Context in which information was originally acquired State dependent Biological or emotional state Truth or Fiction? If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on. True. Being in the proper context, in this case with the stereo on, can dramatically enhance recall. Studying in the same class where the test will be taken is GOOD for recall Other examples by students? - State dependent-sometimes we retrieve info better when we are in a biological or emotional state similar to the one in which we encoded and stored the info.

Forgetting

28. How do We Measure Forgetting? Nonsense syllables Depend on acoustic coding and maintenance rehearsal Three tasks for measurement Recognition Recall Relearning Method of Savings Recognition – Identification of objects or events encountered before Recall – Retrieval or reconstruction of learned material Relearning – Material is relearned more quickly than it is learned initially Method of savings – Difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed is calculated Savings – The difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed.

29. Ebbinghaus’s Classic Curve of Forgetting Figure 7.7 Ebbinghaus’s Classic Curve of Forgetting. Recollection of lists of words drops precipitously during the first hour after learning. Losses of learning then become more gradual. Retention drops by half within the first hour. It takes a month (31 days), however, for retention to be cut in half again.

Retroactive interference 30. Interference Theory Retroactive interference New learning interferes with the retrieval of old learning Proactive interference Older learning interferes with the capacity to retrieve more recently learned material Truth or Fiction? Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French – and vice versa. True. Through retroactive and proactive interference.

31. Repression & Recovered Memories Freudian concept of motivated forgetting Automatic ejection of painful memories from conscious awareness Recovery of repressed memories has little scientific support Implanting false memories (Elizabeth Loftus’ studies on memory) In one study, researchers were able to readily convince half of the subjects that they had been lost in a mall or hospitalized with severe pain as children.

32. Infantile Amnesia Freud – repression Immature hippocampus Cognitive explanations No interest in remembering the past Specific episodes versus networks of memories Unreliable use of symbolic language

33. Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia Unable to remember events that occur after physical trauma Retrograde Amnesia Unable to remember events that occur prior to physical trauma How to remember those two terms? Truth or Fiction? After part of his hippocampus was surgically removed, a man could not form new memories. Each time he was reminded of his uncle’s dying, he grieved as he had when he first heard it. It is true that a man could not form new memories after part of his hippocampus was surgically removed. Two segments are available on the series, The Mind, which is available free (you must register) at URL: http://learner.org/resources/series150.html 10. Life Without Memory: The Case of Clive Wearing, Part 1 Raises many questions about the nature of memory and its importance to human existence. Introduces the viewer to Clive Wearing, who is incapable of making new memories due to viral encephalitis. 11. Clive Wearing, Part 2: Living Without Memory Presents an extraordinary example of the relationship between brain damage and memory function by reintroducing the viewer to Clive Wearing 13 years after his appearance in part one.

The Biology of Memory

34. Neural Activity and Memory Experience increases dendrites and synapses in cerebral cortex Long-term potentiation (LTP) Following brief, rapid stimulation an enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission Neurotransmitters and hormones

One Avenue to Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) Figure 7.8 One Avenue to Long-Term Potentiation. LTP can occur via the action of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and glutamate at synapses. Structurally, LTP can also occur as shown in Parts A and B, when dendrites sprout new branches that connect with transmitting axons, increasing the amount of stimulation they receive.

35. Brain Structures and Memory Hippocampus- helps to store info new memories; episodic memories relays sensory information to cortex Sensory cortex areas Store sensory information Integrated by limbic system

36. Brain Structures and Memory Prefrontal cortex Ability to represent and be aware of past, present and future events Thalamus Formation of verbal memories

37. Prefrontal Cortex