CHAPTER SIX CHAPTER SIX Attention and Memory

The Information Processing Model Uses a computer metaphor to explain how people process stimuli The information-processing approach is based on the assumption that information is processed through a series of hypothetical stages or stores.

Attentional and Perceptual Processing Sensory memory –Incoming information from the senses is retained in the body’s nervous system Memory details depend on how much attention is given to the stimulus. If attention is given, then the info is passed to the next stage of memory. Age differences are not typically found at this stage; however, they do begin to appear when attentional processes are applied to sensory memory.

Speed of Processing How quickly and efficiently these early steps in information processing are completed –Slowing of processing with age is task-specific. Processing Resources The amount of attention one has to apply to a particular situation –May account for ability to remember. –Two theories: Inhibitory loss Attentional loss Attentional Control

Inhibitory loss The idea that older persons have task-irrelevant thoughts that interfere with processing. Research shows inhibition is not universal across all aspects of stimulation. Certain strategies can compensate for irrelevant information interference. Attentional Control

Divided attention: multitasking Older persons are more penalized when they must divide their attention and find it more difficult to multitask. –Writing while listening –Conversing while driving Extensive practice can minimize poor performance on multitasking. Older adults use strategies to compensate for inability to multitask. Attentional Loss

Memory Test

Automatic processing: occurs without person being consciously aware Effortful processing: requires one’s full attention Information Processing

Encoding: process of getting information into memory Storage: happens when info is kept in memory Retrieval: getting info back out of memory Information Processing

Working Memory The active processes and structures involved in holding information in mind Simultaneously using that information, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information to: –Solve a problem –Make a decision –Learn new information Memory Processes

Explicit memory (declarative) –Intentional and conscious remembering of information that is learned at a specific point in time –An example is remembering who wrote the Gettysburg address. Implicit memory (procedural memory) –Retrieval of information without conscious or intentional recollection –Familiar tasks, such as brushing teeth or driving a car. –Smaller age differences than explicit memory Implicit versus Explicit Memory

The ability to remember extensive amounts of information from a few seconds, hours, or decades. Semantic Memory –Learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences of events in time Episodic Memory –Conscious recollection of information from a specific event or point in time Long Term Memory

Recall Memory –Occurs when one remembers information without any help or cues –Do you remember what was on the first slide? (cued recall) Long Term Memory

Recognition Memory –Occurs when one selects from a list of several options –Were any of the following images on the first slide? Long Term Memory

Autobiographical Memory Involves remembering information and events from our own life –It is a form of episodic memory. Flashbulb memories –Vivid memories of very personal or emotional events Memory Processes

Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory Encoding –Elaborative rehearsal involves making connections between incoming information and information already known. Use of strategies during encoding –Organize –Establish links Older persons are not as effective in strategies as younger. Pet scans show age differences in encoding.

Retrieval False-fame effect –Mistaking familiarity for fame Results indicate older persons have a deficit in retrieval. Misinformation and memory –Source memory The ability to remember the source of a familiar event as well as if the event is real or imagined –False Memory When one remembers items or events that did not occur –Remembering childhood abuse that never happened –Picking a person out of a lineup that is innocent

Eyewitness Testimony, Part II Uploaded by CBSNewsOnline on Mar 8, 2009 Lesley Stahl explores the task of an eyewitness to choose a criminal out of line up through memory. Link to video

Memory in Context Prospective Memory Involves remembering to perform a planned action in the future (remembering to remember) –Older patients remember to take medication better than busy middle-aged patients.

Cognitive Reserve: Factors That Preserve Memory Exercising memory –Thinking of memory as a mental muscle Multilingualism and Cognitive Functioning –Research suggests that older adults who speak four or more languages had the best cognitive state independent of education. Semantic Memory in Service of Episodic Memory –Older adults are better at remembering related as opposed to unrelated word pairs, indicating that episodic memory might be a useful encoding strategy

Memory and Self Efficacy Older adults do worse on a memory task if they believe that age hampers memory ability

Memory Training Training Memory Skills Strategies –External aids: rely on environmental resources Notebooks or calendars –Internal aids: rely on mental processes Imagery, rote rehearsal, mnemonics

Memory Drugs Only modest, short term improvement No medical breakthroughs Combining Strategies –What works with one may not work for all