Part 2 – Methods for Qualitative Research Dr Janice Whatley September 2014

Agenda Strategies for qualitative studies Methods for data collection Action Research Case Study Research Ethnography Grounded Theory Methods for data collection Questionnaires Interviews Focus Groups Observation Document analysis Dr J Whatley September 2014

Method or Methodology A research method is a strategy of inquiry which moves from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design and data collection The research method is a strategy of inquiry leading to choices of research design and data collection A procedure, technique, or way of doing something, especially in  accordance with a definite plan: e.g. there are three possible methods of repairing this motor. A manner of procedure, especially an orderly, logical, or systematic way of  instruction, inquiry, investigation, experiment, presentation etc. Order or system in doing anything Orderly or systematic arrangement, sequence, or the like Methodology: A set or system of methods, principles and rules for regulating a given discipline, as in the arts or sciences Philosophy:the underlying principles and rules of organisation of a   philosophical system or inquiry procedure Dr J Whatley September 2014

Research Onion (Saunders, 2003) Dr J Whatley September 2014

Action Research “Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework” (Rapoport, 1970, p. 499). Action research is concerned to enlarge the stock of knowledge of the social science community A particularly suitable approach for research by practitioners, where close interaction with subjects is possible Provides opportunities to acquire insights into social worlds, and to help in formulating effective solutions to problems in their lives. It can be a model for and a process for research A cycle of Plan, Act, Observe, Reflect Dr J Whatley September 2014

One model of action research: Problem identification; Consultation with a behavioural science expert; Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis; Feedback to client; Joint diagnosis of a problem; Joint action planning; Action; Data gathering after action. As a process it is based on a cycle of systematically getting data, analysing it, feeding the results back in and evaluating The main characteristics of action research are: Collaboration through participation with subjects; Building up knowledge; Helping social change in the situation being studied; Contributing to empowerment of subjects. Dr J Whatley September 2014

Case Study Research A case study is an empirical inquiry that: investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin 2002). Particularly well-suited to IS research A case study method involves studying a phenomenon in a real-life situation, often used when research and theory are at an early stage of investigation, and informative descriptions of the phenomenon are required Useful for questions of “how?” and “why?” The focus is on events at a particular point in time, to identify patterns or features Dr J Whatley September 2014

Case study is used to contribute to knowledge of individual, group, organisational and other phenomena, and can take a number of forms: theory seeking, theory testing, story telling, picture drawing or evaluation Case studies involve multiple sources of data, so results are often found from triangulation of data. In carrying out case study research a general strategy for analysis is suggested at the outset: Following a theoretical proposition that led to the case study, to answer how and why questions and lead to alternative explanation to be discussed; Thinking about rival explanations, resulting from other influences, and discussing these; Developing a case description, which might highlight relevant causal links to discuss (Yin 1994:21). Dr J Whatley September 2014

Multiple cases are used to establish whether the findings of one case are relevant to other cases Single case research is used where this particular case has some unique quality about it, which is of interest to the wider community as well as the researcher A case study is holistic if it is looking at the organisation as a whole, but is embedded if it is concerned with a particular sub section of the organisation In case study there is a need to take care when making inferences, as there may not be sufficient data to state facts, so cause and effect cannot be stated Dr J Whatley September 2014

Ethnography Ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study (Lewis 1985, p. 380) and seek to place the phenomena studied in their social and cultural context A method whereby multiple perspectives can be incorporated in systems design Based on anthropological fieldwork, where the researcher becomes closely involved with the subjects being studied over a long period of time. , and Data obtained may be very rich for that particular setting, and analysis may enable some generalisability Dr J Whatley September 2014

Grounded Theory Grounded theory is a research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analysed According to Martin and Turner (1986), grounded theory is "an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data.“ Grounded theory suggests that there should be a continuous interplay between data collection and analysis. Grounded theory involves systematically verifying a theory as data is collected, rather than starting with a theory to be tested Dr J Whatley September 2014

Methods for data collection Survey Questionnaires Interviews Focus group Observation Any of these can have a quantitative and qualitative component Data collection, to provide facts and rich meanings for the situation under investigation, such as peoples’ knowledge, attitudes and opinions on a topic Dr J Whatley September 2014

Questionnaires Require a clear outline of the objectives of the survey, designing the instrument, administering it, then managing and analysis of the data, to provide results that are reliable and valid Closed questions for discrete data: Yes/No, or choices from a list Open questions enable the respondent to state views in their own words, whether they write the responses themselves or the interviewer writes the responses down. Likert scales for a range from positive to negative responses, such as agree/disagree Dr J Whatley September 2014

Questionnaires When using the data for qualitative purposes rather than quantitative purposes, it is more important that the sample of respondents chosen are able to provide a wide variety of reflective feedback, covering the relevant issues, than truly represent the population as a whole Dr J Whatley September 2014

Interviews Open questions, where respondents are given the opportunity to respond in any way that they choose, Closed questions are used to obtain factual data from respondents, for example to ascertain the typical ages of respondents When asked with an open mind and encouraging the respondent, they can give very detailed opinions Help to understand the experience of respondents and the meaning they make of it (Seidman 1998) Semi-structured interviews allow the respondents to elaborate on ideas and provide more detail in response to open questions Dr J Whatley September 2014

Potential drawbacks Take care not to influence the respondent and introduce bias, or to allow their professional role, their age, gender or culture to affect respondents’ willingness to provide open answers Dr J Whatley September 2014

Focus Groups Obtaining opinions from a number of people in a cost effective manner (Morgan and Kreuger 1993). Enabling organised discussion, as a collective activity, where the resulting opinions are based on interaction within the group, so that triggers from individuals may spark comments by others (Kitzinger 1994; Powell et al. 1996) A group of individuals are selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the research, also known as a discussion group Dr J Whatley September 2014

Instead of using set questions, there is an open style of eliciting statements, through prompting from the facilitator and the respondents themselves. The idea is to draw upon the respondents’ attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reactions to the topic, and elicit a multiplicity of views and emotions Particularly useful when there are power differences between the participants and decision makers or other professionals, or when one wants to explore the degree of consensus on a given topic The ability for individuals to react to others provides for richer feedback than could be achieved through an individual interview Dr J Whatley September 2014

Observation Overt or covert observation Participant observation What are the ethical issues? Participant observation Note taking or diary Recording Structured observation Types of data generated: Primary observations Secondary observations Experimental data Contextual data Dr J Whatley September 2014

Document analysis Often used alongside primary data collection Types of data: Notices Correspondence Minutes of meetings Reports Administrative records News reports Data collected for other purposes Be sure the data does help to answer the research question Access to the data, and cost of retrieving it Dr J Whatley September 2014

Triangulation The interpretation of a research project may be positioned by reference to three (or more) sources of data Collecting data using different methods will give a variety of types of data covering a wider range, which may increase the robustness of the research. The different forms of data will also provide a richer, contextual basis for interpretation, giving cross validation Confirm findings from a different perspective Using several methods to view interpretive findings will provide more evidence for findings (Fielding and Schreier 2001) Dr J Whatley September 2014

Mixed Methods Looking for a deeper understanding of the social situation being studied than can be seen with statistical measures Some say qualitative data is good for exploratory research at the beginning of a study, but it is being used more for greater understanding of something already measured quantitatively 2 examples: Questionnaire to give an idea of the scale of an issue, followed by in depth interviews and focus groups to identify underlying causes Interviews to determine what the pertinent issues are, followed by questionnaires to measure them Dr J Whatley September 2014

Activity Decide which research strategy and methods would be appropriate for an example of research Dr J Whatley September 2014

Summary There are 4 strategies associated with Interpretive Research Methods used for these are usually qualitative Triangulation gives a wider perspective on the topic Using quantitative methods as well can also provide deeper understanding Dr J Whatley September 2014