1. Part 3 – Analysing and Presenting Qualitative Research Dr Janice Whatley September 2014 Dr J Whatley September 2014

2. Agenda Dr J Whatley September 2014  Conceptual frameworks  Methods for analysis  Presenting findings  Validity  Internal  External  Reliability  Ethics  Concluding remarks

3. Conceptual Framework  To outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought  May act like a map to give coherence to empirical inquiry  As an intermediate theory that attempts to connect the different aspects of the inquiry (e.g., problem definition, purpose, literature review, methodology, data collection and analysis)  Because conceptual frameworks are potentially so close to empirical inquiry, they take different forms depending upon the research question or problem  See document in your pack for some examples Dr J Whatley September 2014

4. Methods for analysis  Transcribe the recorded data to electronic format  What about observation data?  Notes, memos and reflective diary useful  There is no standard approach  But your choice must be consistent with your research philosophy and strategy  Lots of different sorts of data  These need to be compared and contrasted  Identify key themes or patterns  Develop theories based on these patterns  Draw conclusions Dr J Whatley September 2014

5. Be guided by the research questions  Research objectives operationalise your research aim or research question  Identify categories, add chunks of data, and a structure emerges:  Guided by research question and objectives  Some may arise from literature, conceptual framework  Some may emerge from the data  What is happening here?  Why is it happening?  How has it come to happen this way?  When did it happen? Dr J Whatley September 2014

6. Example of data analysis  “In the first instance the comments related to each question were extracted from questionnaires returned, and put together on a spreadsheet, first in teams, and then sorted by version of the prototype. These were then copied and pasted into a Word document, showing the questionnaire comments sorted by question”  “The interview transcripts were analysed firstly by question, retaining a common structure for all of the interviews, by copying and pasting into a new Word document. Next the comments were separated out according to a number of the issues identified from the literature search, such as team cohesion, culture and skills development, which were related to the getting started stage of the projects and their relationships” Dr J Whatley September 2014

7.  “All of the comments were coded to a theme and entered onto a table listing all of the themes and all of the comments from each year of the trial”  “The comments from the focus groups were treated in a similar manner, coding all comments from the transcripts according to themes identified from the literature, those relating to task allocation and ground rules, and those concerned with the interface and implementation, and these were entered onto a table where the comments from both focus groups were put side by side”  “Each comment is unique, but it was possible to identify issues that were commented on more frequently than others. In this way descriptions and explanations for phenomena observed in this research could be examined and used to answer the research questions” Dr J Whatley September 2014

8. Presenting findings  Communicate answers to the research questions  Guided by research questions, themes or conceptual framework  Illustrate findings:  Graphs  Tables  Verbatim quotes  Narrative accounts  Present the facts, rather than give opinions:  What I found out  What judgements I formed based on what I found out Dr J Whatley September 2014

9. Examples ... and also to extend their skills, by learning from each other:  “Pair off people with contrasting skills, e.g. report writer with researcher, to collaborate” TM, T16, 2006  “Team Leader makes decisions on the basis of what you have seen, but the system allows you to let them have a go at something.” TL, T5, 2007 ... there is a recognised need for training in using groupware effectively (Duffy 1996), and this system is no different:  “Down to purpose, and explaining the purpose – if people understand that it is there to help them” FG, 2004 Dr J Whatley September 2014

10. Validity  INTERNAL VALIDITY is affected by flaws within the study itself such as not controlling some of the major variables (a design problem), or problems with the research instrument (a data collection problem).  How sound the research is:  Design and the methods of your research  Do the findings truly represent the phenomenon you are claiming to measure Dr J Whatley September 2014

11.  EXTERNAL VALIDITY is the extent to which you can generalize your findings to a larger group or other contexts  Controlling all possible factors that threaten the research's validity is a primary responsibility of every good researcher Dr J Whatley September 2014

12.  Some factors that can affect internal validity:  Subject variability  Size of subject population  Time given for the data collection or experimental treatment  History  Attrition  Maturation  Instrument/task sensitivity  Important factors affect external validity:  Population characteristics (subjects)  Interaction of subject selection and research  Descriptive explicitness of the independent variable  The effect of the research environment  Researcher or experimenter effects  Data collection methodology  The effect of time Dr J Whatley September 2014

13. Reliability  Reliability is the extent to which repeated experiments will produce the same results, indicating there are minimal errors or bias in the methods used by the researcher  Although positivist research may ensure reliability through methods that are repeatable and giving the same results (Williams 2003), reliability of interpretive research through replicability is unlikely to be possible, because situations under investigation are often unique, and subject to change, meaning that the original conditions may never occur again. Dr J Whatley September 2014

14. Ethical considerations  Any research should be designed and carried out in an ethical manner, i.e. that it is methodically sound and that data is gathered from participants without causing them any detrimental effects.  Informed Consent:  A document explaining the purpose of the research, and asking individuals to indicate their consent to be a part of this research Dr J Whatley September 2014

15. Concluding remarks  Creation and interpretation of knowledge, extending the discipline  Ability to conceptualise, design and implement projects  Qualities for employment:  Making informed judgements  Innovative ways to tackle problems Dr J Whatley September 2014

16. Additional records to keep  Reflective diary to record your experience of undertaking the research  Reflexivity – examine your reactions to what is being researched, relationship to subjects and how you interpret the data Dr J Whatley September 2014

17. Advice  Keep records of everything you do.  Don’t throw anything away, it might come in handy later, when the direction of your work deviates from originally planned.  Be reflective, part of this process is your development as a researcher.  Reflection on your learning and on the research methods is part of the process. Dr J Whatley September 2014

18. Summary  The aim of interpretive research is to produce findings that have been honestly arrived at and plausible, in the particular situation investigated. In many cases both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection are employed, and triangulation of data used to offer different perspectives on the results, in order to provide a measure of reliability to the findings.  Although it is difficult to reproduce qualitative studies identically, efforts can be made to minimise variations in participants, interviewer technique and potential bias, to maximise reliability (Silverman 2000) Dr J Whatley September 2014