Native American Experience: Boarding Schools and Native American Demographics Today ETHN 100 Week 5 Session 1

Last Session Discussed the Riley short story to introduce key vocabulary related to culture such as essentialism, strategic essentialism, assimilation, acculturation, and cultural hybridity. Critiqued the materialist (matter = reality) worldview of culture that places emphasis on objects as “proof” of culture.

Today Examine how paternalistic and essentialist views of Native American culture shaped the evolution of Indian affairs in the United States Government Boarding Schools are emblematic of this view and social structure. Discuss Native American demographics today

Definition for ETHN 100 Culture is ever-changing. Culture is: represented by values, traditions, social and political relationships, worldview shared by a group of people and bounded by a combination of common history, geographic location, language, social class, religion, sexual orientation, and other dimensions. This definition reflects the hybridity and fluidity we discussed last session.

Power/Resistance Identity Culture Structure Overt and Covert control Identity How groups and individuals see themselves and are seen by “others” Culture Bounded system of values and traditions shared by a group Structure Institutions and patterns of social interaction

Forced Assimilation (1800s – 1970s) Policies to impose cultural assimilation became increasingly intrusive and aggressive. In cooperation with religious groups, efforts were made to eradicate native cultures and impose the American way of life. Native religions were destroyed in exchange for Christianity. Native languages were denied in exchange for English. Education was reduced to “civilizing” natives.

Government-Run Boarding Schools By 1900, thousands of Native Americans were studying in roughly 150 boarding schools around the United States. “Kill the Indian, and save the man” – Richard H. Pratt, longtime Superintendent of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania. Children were separated from their families for years at a time and placed in schools that were designed to indoctrinate them with the belief that European-American culture was superior to “primitive” tribal cultures. Taught to speak English Wear western clothing Pray as Christians Faced stern punishment for failure to behave in accordance to these cultural norms. Boarding schools of this nature were put into effect in Canada and Australia.

Evolution of Indian Affairs At the start of the twentieth century: Indians were impoverished. They were virtually at the mercy of the federal government, whose paternalistic policies continued to reflect white ethnocentrism. Native Americans were wards of the federal government and were thus no longer seen or dealt with as separate nations. The native population had been reduced to fewer than 250,000. Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 Was enacted by congress at the recommendation of John Collier, head of BIA under Franklin D. Roosevelt. Collier was sympathetic to Native Americans. He valued tribal self-rule and efforts to preserve Native culture. The IRA ended the allotment system provided by the Dawes Act.

Termination (1950s) In the 1950s, the federal government ended its responsibility to provide various social, educational, and economic services to Indians. It also ended government protection of Indian lands and property held in trust for the tribes. The government ended the treatment of Native Americans as collective entities. The decision was made to treat them as individuals. The goal of termination was assimilation. It was proposed that reservations be dismantled and the government’s role with Natives be severed. Native Americans were encouraged to move off of reservations to major urban areas. Reactions among Native Americans Most strongly resisted termination. Native groups were aware that more lands and cultural practices would be lost.

Red Power Movement (1960s and 70s) The government reversed its decision on termination in the 1970s in part because of the Red Power Movement. During the late 1960s and 70s, Native Americans put pressure on the federal government to address Indian issues, needs and rights. Emulated and was emulated by other racial and ethnic minority groups that were organizing and resisting at the time, namely African Americans and Chicano/as. Built public awareness of the plight of Native Americans Marches Protests Sit-ins Demonstrations Major events Occupation of Alcatraz Island in California Wounded Knee in the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota AIM, the American Indian Movement emerged during this time.

Self-Determination (1970s – present) In 1975, Congress passed the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act. Permitted tribes to take control of numerous federal programs on reservations. Tribal governments assumed the reservations’ social and economic functions. Renewed tribal sovereignty Reversed the policies of termination. Contemporary policies have focused on political self- determination and on the protection of remaining Indian lands.

Demographics In general, the population of Native Americans is young and growing. Two possibilities: high birthrate and increased number of people declaring their Indian ancestry. Difficult to count how many Native Americans exist today. What determines identity is left to tribes to decide. Census data is a collection of self-selected identities 2.5 million (less than 1 percent of the total US population). The number jumps to 4.1 million if those who declare mixed ancestry that includes Native American. The population is split between those who live on and off the 278 federal Indian reservations. Reservation Indians Two largest: Navajo (New Mexico, Utah, and Arizona) – 143,000; Lakota (South Dakota and Nebraska) – 11,000. Urban Indians In 1960, 25 percent of Native Americans lived in urban areas. By 2000, the number increased to 60 percent.

Economic Development Native Americans remain, on the whole, among the poorest groups in US society according to a number of SES indicators. In recent years, many Native groups have become more aggressive in pursuing projects designed to foster greater economic development and independence. Because they are sovereign peoples, they are not taxed. Entrepreneurship is on the rise. The largest and most significant of these enterprises is legalized gaming, or gambling. The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act was passed in 1988. About 300 Indian casinos and bingo parlors in 28 states have been established. $5 billion in profits were made.

Benefits to Native Americans Real and potential benefit of casinos has yet to provide economic salvation to the vast majority of Native Americans. Most casinos have not thrived. Non-Indian investors have benefited significantly. Two-thirds of Native Americans belong to tribes that do not own Las Vegas-style casinos. Unemployment remains a significant issue for many. Access to quality education and healthcare are also problems many face.

Next Session Writing workshop that was scheduled for today will take place next week. That session will be split into two. Week 6 Session 1: Return papers; Observations and Feedback on WA1, Introduce WA2 Week 6 Session 2: Developing thesis statements Transition to Social Structure and the African American experience No Reflexive Commentaries this weekend. Two Part Online Session for Week 6: Watch Parts 1-5 of the movie “A House Divided” an answer quiz questions. Warning: Rape scene in the first two minutes of Part 4. List 5 terms from the materials on Native Americans for each crosscutting theme. Bring hard copy to class. Reading Notes on the US Commission on Civil Rights Reminder: No office hours this week.