1. Native Americans & US History: Effects of “manifest destiny” Photos: (top) “Jajuk, Selawik from northwestern Alaska, ca. 1929”; (left) “Wife of Modoc Henry, Klamath tribe, on June 30, 1923”; (right) “Three Eagles, Nez Perce, ca. 1910”. (Library of Congress/Edward S. Curtis) Kimberly Josephson English Teaching Assistant 2014

2. Policies Removal Act 1830Trail of Tears “Peace” Policy 1868/9Assimilation Dawes Act 1887 “Fractionation” 138 million acres  48 million Indian Reorganization Act 1934Policy reversal Termination Policy 1940s – 1960s Reversal… again “Self-Determination” & Education Assistance Act 1975 Resources, law enforcement, education, etc.

3. Assimilation Era (1880s – 1920s) Photo: “Chiricahua Apaches as they arrived at Carlisle from Fort Marion, Florida” by John N. Choate, November 4, 1886

4. Assimilation Era (1880s – 1920s) Photo: “Chiricahua Apaches four months after arriving at Carlisle” by John N. Choate

5. Native American Boarding Schools “…kill the Indian and save the man” (Capt. Richard H Pratt) Carlisle Indian Industrial School (1879 – 1918) Means of assimilation Appearance: Victorian era-style clothing, shaved heads Language: English only (“those caught ‘speaking Indian’ were severely punished.”) Religion: Forced Christian prayer Schedule: Military-like daily regimen Curriculum: Academic, vocational, & farming techniques Argentina? http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~sprag20h/carlisleindianschool.html

6. “Soul Wound.” Some schools remained open until the 1980s Forced enrollment ended in the 1930s Similar system adopted by Canada Investigations (US & Canada) into emotional, sexual, and physical abuse: reports of poisoning, starving, electric shock, beating, sterilization, rape https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G1TCQf2NTFc “Our Spirits Don't Speak English: Indian Boarding School”

7. “ ‘ Native America knows all too well the reality of the boarding schools,’ writes Native American Bar Association President Richard Monette, who attended a North Dakota boarding school, ‘where recent generations learned the fine art of standing in line single-file for hours without moving a hair, as a lesson in discipline … where the sharp rules of immaculate living were instilled through blistered hands and knees on the floor with scouring toothbrushes; where mouths were scrubbed with lye and chlorine solutions for uttering Native words.” Excerpt: “Soul Wound: The Legacy of Native American Schools” (Andrea Smith, Amnesty, March 2007)

8. Self-Determination Era (1970s – ) Washington Post article “The hard lives – and high suicide rate – of Native American children on reservations” by Sari Horwitz(March 9, 2014) “Richard Stone, left, and Tyler Owens stand near the tree where a Native American girl and her father both committed suicide in Sacaton, Ariz. Owens, who lives across the street from this tree, said: “In Indian Country, youths need to have somebody there for them. I wish I had been that somebody for the girl in the tamarisk tree.” Linda Davidson/The Washington Post

9. Populations & reservations today 2.9 – 5.2 million people (0.9 – 1.7%) Most (78%) of the population lives off reservations Largest tribes: Cherokee and Navajo California, Arizona, Oklahoma Local sovereignty for 562 tribes Government contracts with tribes, like other states “domestic dependent nations” Critiques?

10. Historical trauma & other issues Disproportionate [documented] rates of: PovertyCrimeAlcoholism DiabetesTuberculosisSuicide Depression Sports mascots Washington Redskins (NFL) Cleveland Indians (MLB) “Native American” vs. “American Indian” Native American Gambling Industry

11. Native Languages Near extinction in most tribes Attempts at rebirth: Wampanoag communities of Massachusetts “There is nothing I know of that's anything like the Wampanoag case.” Noam Chomsky

12. Sources Pictures: http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2013/04/native- americans-portraits-from-a-century-ago/100489/; http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/primarysourcesets/ assimilation/http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2013/04/native- americans-portraits-from-a-century-ago/100489/ http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/primarysourcesets/ assimilation/ Policies: http://lawlib.lclark.edu/blog/native_america/wp- content/uploads/2010/03/Indian-Policies.pdfhttp://lawlib.lclark.edu/blog/native_america/wp- content/uploads/2010/03/Indian-Policies.pdf Boarding schools: https://content.lib.washington.edu/aipnw/marr.html https://content.lib.washington.edu/aipnw/marr.html Washington Post article: http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/the-hard- lives--and-high-suicide-rate--of-native-american- children/2014/03/09/6e0ad9b2-9f03-11e3-b8d8- 94577ff66b28_story.html http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/the-hard- lives--and-high-suicide-rate--of-native-american- children/2014/03/09/6e0ad9b2-9f03-11e3-b8d8- 94577ff66b28_story.html