CEE 210 Environmental Biology for Engineers Lecture: Plant Biology CEE 210 Environmental Biology for Engineers Instructor: L.R. Chevalier Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Southern Illinois University Carbondale

Plants – Importance to civil and environmental engineered systems Prevents soil erosion Sequestration of carbon dioxide produced by fossil-fuel combustion Removal of contaminants from soil A source of fuel Wastewater treatment Wetlands

Objective Review the divisions of the plant kingdom Review the basic plant anatomy Understand basic process of oxidation reduction and how it relates to photosynthesis Discuss the importance of plants to civil and environmental engineering Understand the use of plants for Reducing contaminants in soil Wetlands Wastewater Treatment

Plants – What are they? Multicelluar Photosynthtic Eukaryotic Fundamental to ecosystems Takes in CO2 Fixes CO2 to organic matter that provides food for other organisms Produces O2

Plant Division Bryophytes Mosses Lack specialized vascular tissue for transport of nutrients Limits height Has rhizoids instead of roots Act as anchors Do not absorb Require moist conditions for motile sperm cells to reproduce Saxifra arguta

Plant Division Seedless vascular plants Ferns Transport water and nutrients Specialized roots for absorption Waxy layer on leaf to reduce evaporation Lignin to provide structural strength 144 million years ago (dinosaurs) dominated in tropical climates Basis of today’s coal deposits Produces spores on the underside of fronds May also reproduce asexually from horizontal stems (rhizomes) Cystopteris bulbifera

Plant Division Gymnosperms “Naked Seed” plants Seed is formed after fertilization Contains the embryo, an outer seed coat Includes Conifer (most popular) Cycad (palm-like plants) Ginkgo biloba Cycadaceae: Cycas cirinalis

Plant Division Angiosperm – the flowering plants Dominated the land for 100 million years Flowers, fruit and distinctive life cycle 235, 000 species Duckweed (mm sized) Eucalyptus tress (100 m tall) Saguaro cactus Water lily Monocots Dicots Cactaceae: Carnegiea gigantea Nymphaeaceae: Nymphaea

Plant Division Angiosperms (continued) Further divided by the embryonic leaves of the seed Monocots Include corn and rice Single endosperm in seed Leaves have parallel veins Vascular bundles arranged throughout the cross section (think celery) Dicots Include peanuts and beans Two endosperms in seed (two halves) Network of veins Vascular bundles arranged in a ring

Monocot and Dicot Leaves

Monocots and Dicots: Comparison

Parts of the Plant Root Stems Leaves

Roots The primary purpose of the root is _____________ The roots also provide the stems and leaves with water and dissolved minerals.  In order to accomplish this the roots must grow into new regions of the soil. The growth and metabolism of the plant root system is supported by the process of photosynthesis occurring in the leaves Two major types of roots systems Taproots Fibrous

Roots

_____________________ Characterized by one main root Smaller branches emerge from the main root When a seed germinates, the first root to emerge is the radicle, or primary root For conifers and dicots, this radicle develops into the taproot Taproots can be modified for use in storage of carbohydrates (carrots, beets) Taproots are important adaptations for search for water (poison ivy)

________________ Characterized by having a mass of similarly sized root, referred to as adventitious roots Fibrous roots systems are excellent for erosion control

Root structure Root cap Zone of division Zone of elongation zone of cell differentiation Root cap Zone of division Zone of elongation Zone of maturation zone of cell elongation zone of cell division root cap

Root structure Root cap Zone of division Zone of elongation Cup shape group of cells at the tip of the root that protects delicate cells behind the cap Secretes mucigel, a lubricant that aids in movement Also plays a role in the plant’s response to gravity If a flower pot is placed on it’s side, the stem would grow upward toward the light, and the root cap would direct the roots to grow downward Zone of division Zone of elongation Zone of maturation

Root structure Root cap Zone of division Zone of elongation Contains growing and diving meristematic cells After each division, one daughter cell retains the properties of the meristems cell The other daughter cell moves into the zone of cell elogation Zone of elongation Zone of maturation

Root structure Root cap Zone of division Zone of elongation The daughter cell from the zone of cell division elongates, sometimes as much as 150 x This pushes the root tip through the soil Zone of maturation

Definition Meristem Apical meristems Undifferentiated cells Found in zones of growth Root tip Buds Differentiation Protoderm – near the outside of the stem, develops into the epidermis. The epidermis is the outermost layer of tissue (dermal tissue) of leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits and seed. Procambium – lies just inside the protoderm, develops into the vascular cylinder xylem and phloem may become the wood of the tree Ground meristem – develops into the cortex or pith produces the cork cambium may becomes the bark of a tree

Root Structure: Zone of Maturation

Root Structure: Root Hairs Cut a section just above the first root hairs Cells have differentiated into tissues

Stem Provides support and protection Transport system for water and nutrients __________ Main water and mineral conducting tissue At maturity, xylem cells lose their protoplasm forming nonliving hollow tubes Food conducting tissue Transports substance to and from the roots and leaves

Comparing Stem and Root

Trees: Cross Section

Plant: Cross section of a horsetail Note: the carinal canal contains the vascular bundles , which are clusters of xylem and ploem.

Leaves Main photosynthetic organ of the plant Composed of a lamina (blade) and the petiole

Photosynthesis Diagram of photosynthesis showing how water, light, and carbon dioxide are absorbed by a plant to produce oxygen, sugars, and more carbon dioxide.

Oxidation-Reduction: What is it? Rusting of metal Process of photography A car battery Way living systems produce and utilize energy e- All involve electron-transfer

Oxidation Term derived from the observation that almost all elements react with oxygen The product is a compound referred to as an oxide Consider as an example the corrosion or rusting of iron ?

Reduction Term originally used to describe the removal of oxygen from metal ores “Reduced” the metal ore to pure metal ?

Atoms Recall the following Atoms have charged subatomic particles Atoms are electrically neutral The oxidation state or oxidation number is the sum of the negative and positive charges in an atom Since every atom contains an equal number of positive and negative charges, the oxidation state or oxidation number of any atom is always zero This serves as an important reference point

The Basic Model The loss of an electron produces a positive oxidation state The gain of an electron results in a negative oxidation state The changes that occur in the oxidation state can be predicted quickly and accurately by guidelines of the representative elements (the vertical columns to the left and right of the periodic table) Transition Metals Representative Elements

The Basic Model The representative elements can be divided into two classes – metals and nonmetals Metal lose electrons With the exception of hydrogen, these are to the left of metalloid Nonmetals gain electrons Metalloids have properties similar to both Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antinomy, Tellurium, Astatine nonmetals metalloids metals

Oxidation state of metals Metals lose electrons, forming positively charge ions, called cations Group number Same as the number of electrons lost Same as the charge of the cation formed Same as the number of electrons found in the outermost shell of the atom (called valence electrons) Calcium is used below t show the convention for writing oxidation reactions Symbol of the atom Number of electrons lost Symbol of the cation

Electron Configuration Table H 1 He 2 1s LI Be B C N 3 O 4 F 5 Ne 6 2s   2p Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar 3s 3p K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co 7 Ni 8 Cu 9 Zn 10 Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4s 3d 4p Rb Sr. Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 5s 4d 5p Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ra Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 6s 5d 6p Fr Ac Rf Ha 7s 6d Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er 11 Tm 12 Yb 13 Lu 14 4f Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 5f

4p 3d 4s 3p 3s Energy 2p 2s 1s H 1 He 2 1s LI Be B C N 3 O 4 F 5 Ne 6 nonmetals metalloids metals H 1 He 2 1s LI Be B C N 3 O 4 F 5 Ne 6 2s   2p Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar 3s 3p K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co 7 Ni 8 Cu 9 Zn 10 Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4s 3d 4p Rb Sr. Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 5s 4d 5p Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ra Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 6s 5d 6p Fr Ac Rf Ha 7s 6d Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er 11 Tm 12 Yb 13 Lu 14 4f Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 5f

Quick Quiz on Concepts Write the oxidation half-reactions for the following, indicating the charge of the ion formed and the number of electrons lost. For example:

Reduction of nonmetals The electrons lost by the metal are not destroyed, but instead, gained by the nonmetal The nonmetal is then said to be reduced The gain in the negatively charged ion (called an anion) is called a reduction reaction 8p 8n

Quick Quiz on Concepts Write the reduction half-reactions for the following, indicating the charge of the ion formed and the number of electrons lost. For example:

Summary Table Group Number Number of Electrons Lost Charge of Cation Formed I 1 +1 II 2 +2 III 3 +3 IV 4 +4 Group Number Number of Electrons Gained Charge of Anion Formed IV 4 -4 V 3 -3 VI 2 -2 VII 1 -1 VIII no tendency to form anions

Application of Concept: Oxidation-Reduction between Metals and Non-Metals Oxidation must always be coupled with reduction Electrons lost by one substance must be gained by another Electrons cannot be destroyed or created The transfer of electrons results in a drastic change to the elements involved Consider sodium, Na Silver grayish metal Consider Cl Greenish colored gas +

Quick Quiz on Concepts Consider the metal-nonmetal combinations below. Predict the chemical formula. The first one is worked for you. Example: Na and S Solution: Na+1 S2- therefore Na2S Mg and O Al and F Ca and F Mg and N

Transition Metals Behavior is similar to representative metals Oxidized by nonmetal (e.g. lose an electron to form an ionic compound) Can exhibit multiple oxidation states, forming cations with different charges This is due to the partially filled inner electron level (e.g. 4s filled before 3d) Element of environmental concern: Iron Can lose 2,3,4,6 or 7 electrons Transition Metals Representative Elements

Quick Quiz on Concepts Determine the oxidation state of metals in the following compounds. Cu2O Cr2O3 MnO2 Al2S3

Types of Redox Reactions: Combination Reactions These involve combining two elements to form a chemical compound. One is always oxidized One is always reduced Example 1: Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen oxidation states: +1 -2 “free elements” (each hydrogen) Note: Hydrogen is oxidized and oxygen is reduced.

Types of Redox Reactions: Combination Reactions These involve combining two elements to form a chemical compound. One is always oxidized One is always reduced Example 2: Formation of sulfur trioxide from oxygen and sulfur oxidation states: +6 -2 (each oxygen) “free elements” Note: Sulfur is oxidized and oxygen is reduced.

Types of Redox Reactions: Decombination Reactions The result of a combination reaction can be reversed. Example 3: Decomposition of potassium chlorate, KClO3 oxidation states: +1 +5 -2 +1 -1 “free elements” (each oxygen) Note: Chlorine is reduced, while oxygen is oxidized

Types of Redox Reactions: Single Displacement Reactions In some redox reactions, an element replaces or displaces another from a compound. The element that replaces the element in the compound is oxidized, the element displaced is reduced. Example 4: Displacement of hydrogen by a iron oxidation states: +1 -1 +3 -1 “free element” Let’s break this down with respect to the oxidation of the iron

Types of Redox Reactions: Single Displacement Reactions Example 1: Displacement of hydrogen by a iron oxidation states: +1 -1 +3 -1 “free element” Let’s break this down with respect to the oxidation of the iron And the reduction of the hydrogen

Photosynthesis: Redox in Plants Cellular respiration is the oxidation of glucose (C6H12O6) to CO2 and the reduction of oxygen to water Photosynthesis is essentially the reverse of the redox reaction in cell respiration

Photosynthesis: Redox in Plants

Application of Plants in Civil and Environmental Engineering: Duckweed

Duckweed: What is it? Botanically, Lemnaceae The smallest flowering plants Float in still or slow-moving fresh water Found around the world, except cold regiong High protein Fast growing

Duckweed - Research Study of basic plant development, biochemistry, and photosynthesis Toxicity of hazardous waste Genetic engineers are cloning duckweed genes and modifying duckweeds to inexpensively produce pharmaceuticals Aqua-culturalist find them an inexpensive feed source for fish farming Environmental engineers are using duckweed to remove unwanted substances from water

Duckweed in the news… Duckweed spreads across Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela Venezuela struggles to remove aquatic plant faster than it spreads over nation's largest lake Thursday, 17 June 2004 By Alexandra Olson, Associated Press CARACAS, Venezuela — Efforts to remove an aquatic weed from Venezuela's largest lake are barely keeping up with its growth, the environment minister said Wednesday.  The green plant, known as duckweed or lemna, covers about 12 percent of Lake Maracaibo's 13,500-square kilometer (5,400-square mile) surface, said Ana Elisa Osorio.  The lake in western Venezuela is one of South America's largest bodies of water and is an important oil-producing region.... [ read more ] Additional Information: See NASA Earth Observatory Duckweed Invasion in Lake Maracaibo Posted July 13, 2004 (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=4654 )

Duckweed: Bioremediation Duckweed grows rapidly, and requires substantial amount of nutrients They have evolved the ability to rapidly remove minerals from the water These nutrients are converted in the plant biomass Research has shown that duckweed is adept at removing phosphates and nitrogen, particularly ammonia These are major contaminants from agricultural operations The problem is increasing as modern farming operation concentrate livestock in small areas

Duckweed Above:  swine in North Carolina, Below:  a duckweed treatment lagoon inside a plastic greenhouse.  Photos courtesy of Paul Skillikorn (http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed.htm)

Duckweed Biomass After use, the biomass much be removed This can be done by skimming Duckweed grown on animal waste normally does not contain toxic pollutants Uses Food for fish or livestock Fertilizer If fed to animals, a retention period in clean water is necessary to ensure the biomass if free of water-borne pathogens

Schematic of WWT Operation Based on the journal paper Smith, M.D., Moelyowati, I., 2001, Duckweed based wastewater treatment: design guidelines for hot climates, Water Science and Technology, 43(11):291-299.

Basic Concepts of DWWT Duckweed mat Fully covers water surface Results in three distinct zones Aerobic Anoxic Anaerobic

Basic Concepts of DWWT Aerobic zone Only 10 cm thick Organic molecules are oxidized by aerobic bacteria using atmospheric oxygen transferred by the duckweed roots

Basic Concepts of DWWT Anoxic Zone Organic nitrogen is decomposed by anoxic bacteria End product is ammonia and phosphate The ammonium (NH+4) and phosphate (PO3-4 )is used as a nutrient by the duckweed

Basic Concepts of DWWT Anaerobic zone Anaerobic bacteria decompose organic waste The resulting gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methane (CH4)

Target Water Quality Parameters DWWT are reported to reduce BOD Biochemical oxygen demand COD Chemical oxygen demand TSS NH+4 PO3+4 Fecal coliform

Design Equations Parameter Effluent quality Rate constants (for depth ≥0.6m) BOD Le=Lie-Kt K=0.158(1.052)T-20 COD K=0.131(1.065)T-20 TSS Se=Si[(-1.18/T)ln(t)+6.5)/T] Fecal coliform Ne=Nie-kt K=0.7-1.4 Ammonium and phosphate have similar exponential equations The units are: t (day) K (day-1) T (˚C)

DWWT Design Schematic Influent Q Li Q/3, Li Q+aQ, Le Effluent Le a = recirculation percentage Q = flowrate (m3/d) L = BOD concentration (mg/L)

DWWT Design Problem Influent Q Li Q/3, Li Effluent Le Q+aQ, Le aQ, Le Estimate the time it will take for the BOD to reduce 70% if the temperature is 25˚ C.

Duckweed: Patents Use US Patent Office to review patents with key words Duckweed Water treatment http://patft.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

US Government Sponsored Research Duckweed Research from NASA NASA research on duckweeds for use in advanced life support systems for human exploration and development of space.  Such systems will be required for missions to the planets. National Institutes of Health NIH supports research on duckweeds as a model system to understand gene regulation, biosynthesis of essential nutrients, photobiology, and more. National Science Foundation NSF sponsors fundamental research in areas of biology not supported by NIH. USDA Research with Duckweeds USDA employs duckweeds as model systems for basic plant research and in studies of alternative treatment systems for animal waste. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) EPA reports that duckweeds are very promising for their potential to detoxify pesticide residues in the environment. United States Geological Survey Biological Resources Division (BRD) supports work on waste treatment, wetlands, and global environmental change.

Objective Review the divisions of the plant kingdom Review the basic plant anatomy Understand basic process of oxidation reduction and how it relates to photosynthesis Discuss the importance of plants to civil and environmental engineering Understand the use of plants for Reducing contaminants in soil Wetlands Wastewater Treatment

References Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists Section 5.4.5 Photosynthesis Chapter 7 Furman University : Review of Plant Anatomy http://facweb.furman.edu/~lthompson/bgy34/plantanatomy/indexpage.htm Dr. Gilbert Muth: Biological Foundations Home Page Glossary, Diagrams and Photos http://www2.puc.edu/Faculty/Gilbert_Muth/botsylhome.htm Botanical Society of America http://www.botany.org/ SIUC PhytoImages http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu/

References Atlas of Plant Anatomy, Dr. Paul Schulte, UNLV http://sols.unlv.edu/Schulte/Anatomy/Anatomy.html Missouri Botanical Gardens, Duckweeds, Dr. John W. Cross http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed.htm Internet Chemistry: Leeward Community College, University of Hawaii Oxidation Reduction http://library.kcc.hawaii.edu/external/chemistry/redox_title.html Duckweed Smith, M.D., Moelyowati, I., 2001, Duckweed based wastewater treatment: design guidelines for hot climates, Water Science and Technology, 43(11):291-299. http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/practical_duckweed.htm#Bioremediation

Images Roots and erosion Dr. Gilbert Muth Botanical Society of America Wikimedia commons http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roots_and_Soil_Erosion.jpg Dr. Gilbert Muth Biological Foundations Home Page Glossary, Diagrams and Photos http://www2.puc.edu/Faculty/Gilbert_Muth/botsylhome.htm Schematic of different roots Microscopic image of root tip Schematic of stem growth Schematic of the cross section of a horsetail Schematic of root-shoot-leaves Botanical Society of America www.botany.org Monocot leaf, cleared Dicot leaf, cleared SIUC PhytoImages http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu/ Saxifra arguta Cystopteris bulbifera Cycadaceae: Cycas cirinalis Cactaceae: Carnegiea gigantea Nymphaeaceae: Nymphaea

Images Plants and their structures Review of Plant Anatomy Schematics comparing monocots and dicots Schematic of plant parts http://mac122.icu.ac.jp/biobk/BioBookPLANTANATII.html#Table of Contents Cites the images are from Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), Review of Plant Anatomy Furman University http://facweb.furman.edu/~lthompson/bgy34/plantanatomy/indexpage.htm Image of tap root Image of fibrous root Rutgers: General Biology 101 Image of root tip (modified by this author in Photoshop) http://bio.rutgers.edu/~gb101/lab2_mitosis/section1_frames.html BaileyBio.com AP Biology: Powerpoint - Plant Structure Schematic of zones in the plant root tip Monocot-Diocot Seed Penn State York http://www2.yk.psu.edu/~sg3/ist311/games/team3/index.html Duckweed Photo http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed.htm

Images Calcium orbit Sodium solid Chlorine Table Salt http://www.green-planet-solar-energy.com/calcium-element.html Sodium solid WebElements Chlorine http://www.green-planet-solar-energy.com/the-element-chlorine.html Table Salt Department of Planetary Science, Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/ http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/IMP/beagle2/Table_salt/Table_salt.htm Photosynthesis leaf Butler University Friesner Herbarium: http://www.butler.edu/herbarium/ http://www.butler.edu/herbarium/treeid/treeparts.html From Discover Science, Scott, Foresman, & Co., 1993 Photosynthesis plant http://extension.oregonstate.edu/mg/botany/growth.html

Sources of photographs and images in sidebar Human brain http://www.healthnak.com/mind/ X-rays images http://martingallerycharleston.com/index.html Cold Virus (altered in Photoshop) http://medphoto.wellcome.ac.uk/ About the Instructor Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering Fellow, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Diplomat, Water Resources Engineering, American Academy of Water Resources Engineering (AAWRE) Board Certified Environmental Engineer, American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE) Licensed Professional Engineer, State of Illinois