Rural/Urban Rural/Urban Gender: patriarchies and double standards--Native, Iberian, African Gender: patriarchies and double standards--Native, Iberian, African Condition: slave/not encomendado/not Condition: slave/not encomendado/not Race/calidad/casta: español, indio, casta--phenotype (color), not enough Race/calidad/casta: español, indio, casta--phenotype (color), not enough Culture: language, dress, food, social interaction Culture: language, dress, food, social interaction Class, wealth: poor, not Class, wealth: poor, not Society of castas: Spanish America

1580: colonial hegemony Spanish cities and towns: 225 (tot. pop ~500,000) Native towns and villages: thousands (~5 million) Spanish mines and plantations

Post-conquest society (Spanish America) rural urban

Native: gendered division of labor universal, early marriage (15-16 yrs) access to village lands via household Native: gendered division of labor universal, early marriage (15-16 yrs) access to village lands via household Iberian sex-ratio imbalance males/female nearly universal, later marriage (17-18) equi-partible inheritance Iberian sex-ratio imbalance males/female nearly universal, later marriage (17-18) equi-partible inheritance African sex ratio imbalance--3 males/female slavery threatened family, community advantage of informal unions African sex ratio imbalance--3 males/female slavery threatened family, community advantage of informal unions Gender: patriarchies and double standards

Ethno-racial composition, New Spain

Race/calidad/ casta Racial lines more apparent than real Phenotype (color) not enough Flexibility: calidad (character, reputation) Crossings Crossings

Three divisions Español peninsular, creole Indio encomendado, migrant (naboria) Casta negro (bozal) mulato, etc.

Marriageways Spain: “ Better to marry than to burn”-- low illegitimacy in Spain. New Spain : “Better to be well fixed with a concubine than badly married.”--high illegitimacy in Spanish America.

Indian: rampant in the Caribbean (until the virtual extinction of the population) and on the frontiers (until the end of colonial rule) Indian: rampant in the Caribbean (until the virtual extinction of the population) and on the frontiers (until the end of colonial rule) African: first the earliest conquests small in number until 18th century but important in society, economy and even politics (militias) African: first the earliest conquests small in number until 18th century but important in society, economy and even politics (militias)Slavery

Slave Traffic from Africa: (data repeated on next 4 maps) : beginning (1/4 million) : beginning (1/4 million) : growing (1.3 million) : growing (1.3 million) : peaking (6 million) : peaking (6 million) : declining (2 million) : declining (2 million)

Slave Traffic (figures in thousands): , beginning (1/4 million) (P.D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade)

Slave Traffic: , growing (1.3 million)

Slave Traffic: , peaking (6 million) ,400 1,400 1,

Slave Traffic: , declining (2 million) ,100

Cacao Boom: Venezuela, 4 regions occurred after 1680s (data for 1684, 1720, 1744) Caracas

Encomenderos: conquerors and royal favorites Encomenderos: conquerors and royal favorites Encomienda: Grants of tribute and labor of native villagers, primarily to conquistadores Encomienda: Grants of tribute and labor of native villagers, primarily to conquistadores Crown attempts to convert from private to royal control (New Laws of 1542) Crown attempts to convert from private to royal control (New Laws of 1542) Attempts to restrict use of labor by encomenderos (personal service banned 1549) Attempts to restrict use of labor by encomenderos (personal service banned 1549) Labor drafts: mita and repartimiento (1550-) Labor drafts: mita and repartimiento (1550-) Encomienda and encomenderos

Potosí (Upper Peru), 1545: richest silver mine in the early modern world

Inside Potosí: native miners Migrant labor draft: mita every 7 years 16 provinces: lost 50% of pop in a century

End