CRUISE TOURISM, REGENERATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE: THE NEED FOR ACCESSIBILITY John McCarthy Heriot-Watt University Scotland, UK

Summary Context: shifting of waterfront uses Context: shifting of waterfront uses Cruise ship tourism Cruise ship tourism Impacts on port/harbour cities Impacts on port/harbour cities Case of Amsterdam Case of Amsterdam COST Action and checklist proposal COST Action and checklist proposal Conclusions Conclusions

Context: shifting of waterfront uses Shifting of port/harbour activities to city periphery Shifting of port/harbour activities to city periphery Degeneration of port area Degeneration of port area Exacerbated by historic disconnection from city centres Exacerbated by historic disconnection from city centres

Implications for regeneration Redevelopment for innovative retail, residential, leisure/tourism and cultural uses Redevelopment for innovative retail, residential, leisure/tourism and cultural uses Masterplanning for design and integration of uses Masterplanning for design and integration of uses High-profile developments to maximise potential for ‘re-imaging’ High-profile developments to maximise potential for ‘re-imaging’

Role of tourism Tourism often important part of port-city regeneration Tourism often important part of port-city regeneration Alternative to port or shipping activities Alternative to port or shipping activities Historic cities can capitalise on location, climate and historic heritage Historic cities can capitalise on location, climate and historic heritage

Cruise tourism Expanded significantly in 1960s, 1980s and 1990s Expanded significantly in 1960s, 1980s and 1990s Rapid growth globally (8% per annum since 1980 Rapid growth globally (8% per annum since 1980 Mediterranean cruise market has been expanding around 11-12% since 1992 Mediterranean cruise market has been expanding around 11-12% since 1992

Cruise tourism cont. Investment in new (larger) ships Investment in new (larger) ships Potential - cruise market in Europe represents less that 1% of the European tourism market (2% in US) Potential - cruise market in Europe represents less that 1% of the European tourism market (2% in US) Demand for related infrastructure such as cruise passenger terminals Demand for related infrastructure such as cruise passenger terminals

Large ships 220,000 tonne ‘Oasis of the Seas’, built for Royal Carribbean International, costing £800m and able to carry 6,296 passengers 220,000 tonne ‘Oasis of the Seas’, built for Royal Carribbean International, costing £800m and able to carry 6,296 passengers Implications for increased infrastructure capacity in cruise passenger terminals, and competition between port-cities Implications for increased infrastructure capacity in cruise passenger terminals, and competition between port-cities

Economic benefits Income: visitor spending and job creation Income: visitor spending and job creation Image enhancement (modernity, leisure and luxury) Image enhancement (modernity, leisure and luxury) New service industries New service industries Extension of tourism season Extension of tourism season Revenue from passenger terminals with uses additional to passenger function Revenue from passenger terminals with uses additional to passenger function

Environmental benefits Re-use of brownfield sites and vacant buildings Re-use of brownfield sites and vacant buildings Improved waterfront-city linkage Improved waterfront-city linkage More sustainable urban densities More sustainable urban densities

Social benefits Developer contributions may offset negative impacts Developer contributions may offset negative impacts Enhanced access to waterfront may benefit local communities Enhanced access to waterfront may benefit local communities Provision of retail and leisure uses Provision of retail and leisure uses

Problems Development of cruise passenger terminals sometimes with limited justification/benefit Development of cruise passenger terminals sometimes with limited justification/benefit Homogenization of waterfronts Homogenization of waterfronts Congestion, exacerbated with (albeit decreasing) seasonality Congestion, exacerbated with (albeit decreasing) seasonality Pollution (eg noise, air, water) Pollution (eg noise, air, water)

Result cont Gentrification effects from increased rent and land values Gentrification effects from increased rent and land values Decreased local quality of life from pollution effects Decreased local quality of life from pollution effects

Case of Amsterdam Amsterdam: cruise passenger terminal (completed 2005) shows importance of transport infrastructure eg access to airport in under 1 hour Amsterdam: cruise passenger terminal (completed 2005) shows importance of transport infrastructure eg access to airport in under 1 hour Public transport link via tram, and coach park and terminal Public transport link via tram, and coach park and terminal Mechanised luggage transfer Mechanised luggage transfer Proximity to city centre Proximity to city centre

Amsterdam cont Innovative design / uses include retail / restaurants / shared use with exhibitions / conferences for up to 3,000 people Innovative design / uses include retail / restaurants / shared use with exhibitions / conferences for up to 3,000 people Now around 200 cruise calls per annum with 230,000 passengers Now around 200 cruise calls per annum with 230,000 passengers

Case of Rotterdam Similar quality/location albeit smaller capacity/greater congestion issues Similar quality/location albeit smaller capacity/greater congestion issues

Problems in practice Transport – while Amsterdam and Rotterdam terminals have excellent public transport links, many passengers prefer to use coach/bus transfers in practice, leading to congestion at peak times Transport – while Amsterdam and Rotterdam terminals have excellent public transport links, many passengers prefer to use coach/bus transfers in practice, leading to congestion at peak times Private buses also much used at the Rotterdam terminal to link to visits to eg Kinderdijk, Delft, Leiden Private buses also much used at the Rotterdam terminal to link to visits to eg Kinderdijk, Delft, Leiden

Problems continued Local residents – some evidence in Rotterdam of tensions at peak periods for cruise ships, and it is expected that cruise calls may increase from 30 (now) to 60 (in 2016/17) – so tensions may be expected to increase Local residents – some evidence in Rotterdam of tensions at peak periods for cruise ships, and it is expected that cruise calls may increase from 30 (now) to 60 (in 2016/17) – so tensions may be expected to increase

Key issue Cruise terminals vary in quality including accessibility (but many more planned) Cruise terminals vary in quality including accessibility (but many more planned) They cause problems for local people eg congestion/pollution They cause problems for local people eg congestion/pollution Cities may exceed ‘carrying capacity’ Cities may exceed ‘carrying capacity’ So need to promote good practice via ‘accessibility’ (broadly defined) checklist So need to promote good practice via ‘accessibility’ (broadly defined) checklist

(Strategic) physical access to the terminal Strategic location in relation to wider road network and public transport (particularly allowing easy access to city and airport)

(Local) physical access to the terminal For foot passengers, including eg covered walkways/bridging from ship to terminal, and from terminal to public transport For foot passengers, including eg covered walkways/bridging from ship to terminal, and from terminal to public transport For luggage, allowing luggage transport services For luggage, allowing luggage transport services For private cars/coaches, allowing traffic management/car+coach parking For private cars/coaches, allowing traffic management/car+coach parking

Mix of uses in the terminal Permanent uses for passengers/local people including restaurants/bars/currency exchange/retail/ATM Permanent uses for passengers/local people including restaurants/bars/currency exchange/retail/ATM Temporary uses including information booths/desk Temporary uses including information booths/desk ‘off-season’ alternative uses eg exhibition/convention facilities ‘off-season’ alternative uses eg exhibition/convention facilities

Mix/integration of uses in the neighbourhood Synergies/functional linkages from uses including commercial/retail/hotel/restaurant/residen tial/leisure Synergies/functional linkages from uses including commercial/retail/hotel/restaurant/residen tial/leisure Synergies within and between these, and with terminal use (allowing accessibility to wider benefits for tourists/residents) Synergies within and between these, and with terminal use (allowing accessibility to wider benefits for tourists/residents)

Legibility of the terminal building Allows easy recognition arising from distinctiveness, eg iconic building can maximise attraction/benefits for all Allows easy recognition arising from distinctiveness, eg iconic building can maximise attraction/benefits for all

Further implications Checklist could include issues of congestion, and potential ‘carrying capacity’ limits Checklist could include issues of congestion, and potential ‘carrying capacity’ limits Linkage to notions of ‘responsible tourism’ encouraging more equity in benefits deriving from cruise tourism (eg for local people, offsetting of pollution etc) Linkage to notions of ‘responsible tourism’ encouraging more equity in benefits deriving from cruise tourism (eg for local people, offsetting of pollution etc)

Conclusions Checklist should assist with use of planning instruments, to maximise benefits and minimise problems Checklist should assist with use of planning instruments, to maximise benefits and minimise problems But ongoing issues for responsible cruise tourism persist, and relate to wider governance of tourism and regeneration But ongoing issues for responsible cruise tourism persist, and relate to wider governance of tourism and regeneration